Source: “The Holy Grail: The History Of A Legend”, By Richard Barber, Published in Penguin Books, 2005.
Later German Romances And The Last Flowering.wav
This podcast explores the evolution and varied interpretations of the Grail in German and English Arthurian romances, particularly in later medieval periods. It highlights how authors like Heinrich von dem Türlin and Ulrich Füetrer reimagined the Grail, shifting its focus from spiritual significance to chivalric adventure or secularized marvels, sometimes even transforming its nature or purpose. The source also delves into the integration of the Grail into the Prose Tristan, illustrating how the desire for more adventures and the inclusion of popular heroes led to a narrative where the Grail, though framing the story, became a secondary element amidst knightly combat and human drama. Finally, it examines Sir Thomas Malory's distinctive approach to the Grail in the Morte Darthur, emphasizing his unique association of the Grail with the Holy Blood and the Eucharist from a layman's perspective, even as he retained the Grail's sacred character within a narrative driven by adventure.
Topic 1: Heinrich von dem Türlin's Anti-Parzival and the Secularization of the Grail Heinrich von dem Türlin’s poem, The Crown, dating from around 1240, presents a bold and controversial response to Parzival, acting as a kind of "anti-Parzival." Unlike previous narratives that emphasized the inner spiritual significance of the Grail quest, The Crown shifts the focus primarily to external events and adventures. Its hero, Gawain, is depicted as a secular rival to the devout Galahad, and the Grail itself is deliberately stripped of all religious connotations. The poem is characterized by a blend of magic, chivalry, and humor. Heinrich, though widely read in Arthurian romance, lacked the writing skills of authors like Malory, leading to a story that sometimes became stifled in its fantasy, despite attempts at humor. In this version, the Grail quest is merely another adventure that Gawain undertakes to pacify Angaras, whose brother Gawain accidentally killed. Gawain’s journey is filled with bizarre and terrifying encounters, such as a fiery man driving naked women, or a sorceress setting a forest ablaze. Ultimately, Gawain successfully asks the necessary question at the Grail castle, releasing the company from a spell that bound them as the living dead of folklore. The Grail then vanishes, never to be seen again. Heinrich’s portrayal of Gawain as the perfect knight, a "secular Galahad," means that the adventures serve not as tests of character but as proofs of his pre-eminent knightly status. This interpretation renders the Grail itself somewhat meaningless, a mere name included due to its newfound fame as a supernatural element in Arthurian romance, rather than a profound spiritual symbol.
Topic 2: Ulrich Füetrer's Rationalized and Chivalric Grail Ulrich Füetrer, a Bavarian poet and painter of the late fifteenth century, approached the Grail story with a similar delight in chivalric adventure, yet he introduced a tendency towards rationalization and realism. In his translation and versification of the Lancelot, he drastically condensed the Grail quest, notably omitting Galahad’s final vision and cutting back descriptions of religious rituals. His changes aimed to make the story more logical and grounded; for instance, the bleeding lance in his version appears only at the end of the ceremony and its blood is immediately used to heal the maimed king, rather than having a mysterious, prolonged effect. Furthermore, the Grail does not mysteriously transport itself after the healing but is ceremoniously taken to the seashore. Füetrer’s second Grail account in The Book of Adventures demonstrates his extensive reading, combining details from various versions of the Perceval story, often using German sources like Parzival and Later Titurel. His work reflects his patron Albrecht IV’s enthusiasm for chivalry and tournaments. He reworks Grail scenes, such as the healing of Anfortas, into lengthy dialogues where the Grail’s virtues are explained. He describes the Grail as a "lump of metal" (ain masse), suggesting a more concrete, if still obscure, understanding of the object, which he derived from a reading of Wolfram’s Parzival.
Topic 3: The Strange and Popular Transformations of the Grail in German Folklore In Germany, particularly in popular belief and the hands of lesser poets, the Grail underwent some truly bizarre transformations. One late thirteenth-century poetic debate between Wolfram von Eschenbach and Klingsor describes the Grail as a jewel that once adorned Lucifer’s crown. After Lucifer’s rebellion, St. Michael tore the crown from his head, breaking it, and the Grail fell to earth, where it was later found by Titurel. Later stories about Lohengrin, Parzival’s son, confusingly merged the Grail kingdom with Arthur’s, implying that Arthur himself sent Lohengrin, thus blurring the lines between the Round Table and the Grail company. Even stranger is the romance of Lorengel, where Parzival uses the Grail as a battle standard, leading an army with it in his hand to defeat Attila the Hun, reminiscent of how the True Cross was used in crusades. Furthermore, the muddled Lohengrin narrative led to the Grail being interpreted as a kind of earthly paradise or limbo, where knights remained alive until the Last Judgment, indulging in sensual pleasures. This evolved into a synonym for Arthur’s own hidden retreat, akin to legends of Charlemagne or Frederick Barbarossa living on in caves. A German writer in 1410 even located this "Grail" near Pozzuoli, a place described as housing men living until judgment day who were "given over to dancing and other delights, and all kinds of diabolical lusts," linking it to the Venusberg, the court of Venus, a place of riotous living and a central motif in the Tannhäuser story. Even the word "Gral" itself took on a secular meaning in northern Germany, referring to a confused noise, which later became associated with knightly sports and tournaments, such as the mock "Grail" held by Brun von Schonebeck in Magdeburg in 1820, a seemingly satirical event involving jousting for a woman of "doubtful morals." Despite these secular and sometimes debauched interpretations, there was also a popular tradition in Germany that maintained the Grail as a holy place, referenced in prayers as "Mary in the heavenly Grail" or "the Grail of paradise."
Topic 4: Albrecht's Later Titurel: The Grail Temple and Utopia Albrecht, a poet known primarily for his work The Later Titurel, offers a stark contrast to Heinrich von dem Türlin’s secular approach. Albrecht’s poem, which was for a time mistaken for Wolfram von Eschenbach’s work due to its intricate details, centers on a lavish, almost obsessively detailed description of the Grail temple. This temple, built by Titurel at Munt Salvatsch in the land of Salvaterre, is conceived as an incomparable structure, designed and executed with such extravagance that its construction was only possible through divine guidance provided by the Grail itself. Albrecht’s descriptions are rich with imagery, listing precious stones, describing intricate musical automata, and detailing the architectural layout, including choirs facing the Orient dedicated to the Holy Ghost, the Virgin, and John. While scholars have tried to reconstruct its physical appearance, its primary intention is symbolic: to evoke an incomparable building that symbolizes an ordered and harmonious state. For Albrecht, the Grail is the absolute center of this state, and its temple functions as a symbol of that order and harmony, as well as a mediator of salvation. The Grail itself is an original concept in Albrecht’s work, described as a stone—"jasper and flint"—from which the phoenix rises, and later fashioned into the dish used by Jesus for the Eucharist, preserved by Joseph of Arimathea. It moves on its own accord and even names its bearer by writing on its surface, its true meaning remaining a mystery. The Grail kingdom, for Albrecht, is a Utopia with a mission to protect the Grail company from sin and assure their salvation, through whom the rest of mankind will also be saved. Virtue is central to this vision, with Titurel given custody of the Grail due to his many virtues. The poem has strong devotional elements, offering an orthodox reading of salvation through spiritual virtue, and presenting the temple as a symbol of the worship of the Virgin.
Topic 5: The Integration of Tristan into the Arthurian-Grail Narrative (Prose Tristan) The Prose Tristan represents a significant shift in Arthurian romance, attempting to combine the disparate extremes of religious chivalry and passionate romantic love within a single, vast narrative. The earliest romances often focused on individual heroes, but with the development of cycles like the Lancelot-Grail, there was an inherent tension between different story aspects. The Prose Tristan catered to an audience’s insatiable demand for adventures and marvels, rather than ideals or elaborate allegories. The originally independent tale of Tristan and Iseult, with its demonstrably Celtic origins and defiant passion, was drawn into the Arthurian cycle due to the immense popularity of Arthur's kingdom. While its ethos of illicit, passionate love initially clashed with the self-denial and chastity associated with courtly love ideals, the Prose Tristan author skillfully integrated Tristan into Arthur’s court, making him a knight of the Round Table for the first time. Tristan is even claimed to be the most renowned knight, second only to Lancelot and sharing descent from Joseph of Arimathea. Large sections of the existing Lancelot-Grail cycle, especially the prelude to the Grail quest, are incorporated into the Prose Tristan. When the Grail quest itself begins, Tristan is reintroduced, and his exploits are interwoven with those of the Grail knights. However, the narrative tone shifts from a single-minded pursuit of a spiritual ideal to a series of knightly adventures, often distracted by Tristan’s thoughts of Iseult and his rivalry with the Saracen knight Palamedes, who, despite being a heathen, embodies high knightly ideals.
Topic 6: The Grail Quest in the Prose Tristan: Diversion and Misfortune Within the Prose Tristan, the Grail quest, though present, is not the sole or even primary focus. The quest becomes interwoven with the fates of Tristan and Iseult and other knightly exploits. Palamedes, Tristan's rival, becomes a crucial link, accepting baptism and joining the Grail quest, becoming one of the twelve knights at Corbenic. Galahad’s role in healing the Maimed King with the lance’s blood is detailed, as is his freeing of other cursed figures, such as the man with snakes and the girls in rags, explicitly connecting these mysterious figures to Joseph of Arimathea’s followers who mocked the Grail service. Galahad also repairs the broken sword, a key artifact. However, the romance concludes with a sense of misfortune and tragedy, particularly with the treacherous killing of Palamedes by Gawain, a scene followed by Palamedes' father's suicide. This serves as a grim counterpoint to the Grail's achievement, highlighting that even the quest can bring about evil and sorrow. Arthur's condemnation of Gawain further underscores this. The overall narrative places adventure at the forefront, with knightly combats and verbal debates dominating the long narrative. While the Grail represents the spiritual side of knighthood, it is handled with less enthusiasm, and the theme of misfortune accompanying the quest is more prominent than its religious implications for the knights pursuing it. The Grail, despite framing the story, ultimately becomes a relatively minor element in a tale primarily driven by chivalric exploits and romantic entanglements.
Topic 7: The Dolorous Blow and the Kingdom of Adventures (Romance of the Grail/Post-Vulgate) The Romance of the Grail, also known as the "pseudo-Robert de Boron" cycle, takes the dominance of adventure even further than the Prose Tristan. This version integrates the Arthurian narrative into an overarching tragic framework: the fall of the kingdom of Logres due to two great sins, punished by misfortune and mishap. The familiar sin of Arthur's incest is present, but a novel element is the "Dolorous Blow." This crucial episode depicts Balin striking King Pellehan with a sacred lance in the Grail chamber, an act that causes the entire palace to shake violently and ushers in "the adventures and marvels of the Kingdom of Adventures," destined to continue until a high price is paid. The primary object of the Grail quest in this narrative is as much the release of Logres from the effects of this Dolorous Blow as it is the achievement of the Grail itself. The Grail is diminished to just another marvel within a compendium of wonders. For example, Lancelot’s madness is cured by the Grail not through spiritual enlightenment, but because the demon possessing him cannot endure the sacred object's presence, treating the Grail as a relic rather than a profound spiritual experience. Merlin prophesies that Arthur’s kingdom will be known as the "Kingdom of Adventures" and that adventure will eventually take his crown. The tone is dark and dismal, characterized by mishaps and misfortunes, with knights killing innocents, friends fighting to the death, and rash promises leading to tragic consequences. This reflects a vision of divine wrath and expiation, rather than spiritual redemption, where the Grail’s sanctity is diluted by the overwhelming context of secular adventure and peril.
Topic 8: Malory's Distinctive Interpretation of the Grail and Holy Blood Sir Thomas Malory's Morte Darthur, completed in 1470, stands as the greatest English version of the Arthurian legends, born from his wide reading of French and English sources. Malory adopts a distinctively personal and layman’s approach to the Grail. Unlike earlier romances, he explicitly and uniquely links the Grail to the Holy Blood of Christ. When he first introduces the Grail, drawing from the Post-Vulgate, he adds his own sentences, stating that King Pellam was healed by Galahad because the chamber contained "part of the blood of Our Lord Jesu Christ, which Joseph of Arimathea brought into this land," and identifying the spear as the one Longinus used to wound Christ. This connection to the Crucifixion and the presence of Christ's blood as a relic is a new interpretation for the Grail, which had previously only been the vessel containing the blood, not necessarily a relic of the blood itself. For Malory, the Grail is intimately intertwined with the Eucharist and the sacrifice of Christ. He consistently refers to it as the "Sancgreal" or "Sankgreall," emphasizing "holy blood" or "royal blood," a likely influence from English traditions, possibly the famous Holy Blood relic at Hailes Abbey, which was close to his estate. While his French source often held the reader in suspense about the Grail’s nature, Malory ensures his readers know precisely what the object is from the outset. Although he later abbreviates the Quest of the Holy Grail by about a third, his writing style is direct and powerful, prioritizing vivid images over the more abstract or philosophical descriptions of his sources, yet never compromising the core theological imagery.
Topic 9: Malory's Portrayal of Grail Ceremonies and Galahad's Vision Despite his unique emphasis on the Grail as a relic of the Holy Blood, Malory largely treats the French original of the Quest of the Holy Grail respectfully when depicting the ceremonial appearances of the Grail. He closely recreates these scenes, often following the French text almost word for word, making only slight abbreviations but preserving the central theological imagery. For instance, in Lancelot's vision of the Mass at Corbenic, Malory describes angels, a priest performing consecration, and three figures elevating the youngest, consistent with the French original. Similarly, his depiction of Josephus taking the host and a child-like figure entering the bread during consecration mirrors the French version. However, Malory deliberately abbreviates and obscures Galahad’s final vision at Sarras. This is likely a cautious move for a layman, given the contentious theological debates surrounding the nature of the Eucharist in fifteenth-century England, particularly with movements like Lollardy questioning orthodox teaching. While the French text explicitly places Galahad’s vision within the Grail and describes it as an interpretation of the Eucharist, Malory omits the phrases that specify where Galahad saw the vision, only stating that his wishes were fulfilled. This suggests Malory understood that at this crucial point, both words and earthly sight must fail in the face of spiritual mysteries, but still confirms that Galahad saw the "marvels of the Sankgreall." For Malory, the Holy Grail and the Eucharist were clearly linked, and he understood the images of the Trinity and transubstantiation, maintaining the sacred character of the tale and creating a powerful, orthodox portrayal of the Grail for his lay audience.
Topic 10: The Enduring Sacred Nature of the Grail and its Disappearance with the Reformation Throughout the diverse medieval Grail romances, from Chrétien to Malory, the Grail consistently retains a sacred character, existing in the borderland between orthodox doctrine and popular lay devotion. It reflects a widespread religious enthusiasm for relics and for the Eucharist as a living relic of Christ, an object of intense desire and adoration. While authors like Wolfram von Eschenbach imbued the Grail with mystery, emphasizing Parzival’s human striving, they clearly acknowledged its sacred nature, with its powers linked to the Mass wafer. This sacred identity, initially inspired by the Eucharist and continuously recognized for centuries, was continually reinterpreted and infused with extraordinary power by the imaginative writers of the age. The masterly closing pages of major Grail narratives—such as Perlesvaus, The Quest of the Holy Grail, Wolfram's Parzival, and Malory's Morte Darthur—each convey a profound spiritual aura, whether it be the apotheosis of the Grail, the hero's emotional maturity, or a deeply personal vision of the Eucharist. However, the deeply embedded religious beliefs at the heart of the Grail stories faced a dramatic challenge in the early sixteenth century with the advent of the Reformation. The core doctrine of the real presence in the Mass, with which the Grail was intimately linked, became a central point of contention. As devout Christians sought to purify their faith from perceived idolatry and superstition, and reformers within the Church distanced themselves from popular excesses, the Grail gradually vanished from the poetic imagination. Following this period, the sources suggest, "never a man was so bold as to say that he had seen the Holy Grail," signaling the decline of its literary and popular significance.