Source: Marvin A. Sweeney, Reading Ezekiel: A Literary and Theological Commentary, Reading the Old Testament Series (Macon, GA: Smyth & Helwys Publishing, Incorporated, 2013), 143–159.
This podcast analyzes several of Ezekiel's prophetic oracles focused on Egypt and its Pharaoh, highlighting their chronological placement within the book and their primary message of judgment. Ezekiel uses vivid metaphors, such as the Pharaoh as a caught fish or a felled tree, to depict Egypt's anticipated downfall, often attributing this destruction to YHWH acting through the Babylonians, led by Nebuchadnezzar. Despite predicting Egypt's demise and scattering, these oracles remained largely unfulfilled historically, prompting some interpretations of Ezekiel as a prophet whose visions await future realization. The text also notes the historical context of these prophecies, including the strained relationship between Judah and Egypt and Egypt's role as a Babylonian rival.
The Collection and Context of Ezekiel's Oracles on Egypt: The source presents a series of dated oracular accounts within the book of Ezekiel that specifically concern Egypt and its Pharaoh. These include Ezekiel 29:1–16, 29:17–30:19, 30:20–26, 31:1–18, 32:1–16, and 32:17–33:20. Most of these oracles are dated to the tenth through twelfth years of Jehoiachin’s exile, corresponding to the period between 587/585 BCE. This places them within the historical context of Nebuchadnezzar's campaigns, particularly his conquest of Jerusalem and the commencement of his siege of Tyre. These campaigns are viewed as preliminary steps by Nebuchadnezzar aimed at subduing Egypt’s regional allies before attempting to conquer Egypt itself, which was his ultimate goal. The concentration of oracles concerning Egypt dated to this specific period suggests that these may have originally formed an early collection later integrated into the book of Ezekiel's chronological framework.
The Historical Context of Egypt and Judah: The oracles are deeply rooted in the historical relationship between Egypt and Judah. As a priest born around the beginning of King Josiah’s reign, Ezekiel would have considered Egypt a significant adversary of Judah. This animosity stemmed partly from Egypt's alliance with Assyria and its prominent, often negative, role in Judah's foundational narratives, particularly the Exodus story found in early Pentateuchal literature. With King Josiah's death and the subsequent collapse of Judah, the anticipation of Egypt's downfall would be viewed through the lens of YHWH working through Babylonia. Egypt had been a close ally of Assyria from the mid-seventh century BCE, even supporting Assyrian interests in western Asia. Pharaoh Necho II notably killed King Josiah in 609 BCE while attempting to aid the Assyrians against the Babylonians. After the defeat of Assyria, Egypt became the primary opponent of Babylon in the west, instigating revolts, including the Judean revolt in 588 BCE and those of other nearby nations like Tyre.
Nebuchadnezzar's Campaigns and the Unfulfilled Oracles: A central theme is Nebuchadnezzar's military actions and their outcome. Nebuchadnezzar's objective was the conquest of Egypt. His campaigns against Judah and the long siege of Tyre (lasting thirteen years from 585 to 572 BCE) were intended to weaken Egypt's allies. Despite these efforts, Nebuchadnezzar ultimately failed to conquer Egypt, although he did invade in 568 BCE without success. This historical reality means that Ezekiel’s oracles against Egypt, which anticipated its conquest by Babylon, were largely unfulfilled. This lack of historical realization parallels the later, unfulfilled vision of the restored temple in Ezekiel 40–48. The oracles anticipating Nebuchadnezzar's successful conquest of Egypt stand in contrast to the actual historical events.
Ezekiel's Theological Perspective: Ezekiel’s oracles reveal a specific theological viewpoint: the prophet believed that YHWH was aligned with the Babylonians. Just as earlier prophets like Isaiah and Jeremiah identified YHWH with the Persian Empire, Ezekiel saw Babylonia as the agent of YHWH's actions. He interpreted Babylonia's conquests of Judah, Tyre, Egypt, and other nations not merely as political or military victories but as acts orchestrated by YHWH. This perspective frames Nebuchadnezzar’s efforts, even his unsuccessful ones against Egypt, within a divine plan, with YHWH using earthly powers to enact judgment and reveal divine sovereignty.
The First Egyptian Oracle (Ezekiel 29:1-16): This oracle, dated to 587 BCE during the siege of Jerusalem and likely set after the Babylonian repulse of Pharaoh Hophra's relief attempt, is formulated as a prophetic judgment speech. It employs vivid poetic and metaphorical language. The central metaphor portrays the King of Egypt as a great fish or serpent caught and pulled from the Nile River. The Nile, which is the lifeline of Egypt, is ironically shown as unable to protect the Pharaoh from YHWH's power. The grounds for judgment are the Pharaoh's arrogant claim, "The Nile is mine, and I made it for myself," which is seen as a direct challenge to YHWH's role as creator. This image of the Pharaoh as a "great serpent" or "dragon" also draws on creation combat imagery where YHWH defeats chaos monsters. The judgment details include YHWH placing hooks in the Pharaoh and casting him and his fish into the wilderness to be devoured by animals, an ironic reversal of the Exodus motif. The oracle concludes with a judgment lasting forty years, during which Egyptians will be scattered and then partially restored, but with Egypt's status reduced, never again to dominate other nations, drawing an analogy to Israel's forty years in the wilderness. Egypt will return to its birthplace, Patros (Upper Egypt), but it will be a "lowly" kingdom.
The Second Egyptian Oracle (Ezekiel 29:17-30:19) and Anomalies: This oracular account is notable for its unusual dating (the twenty-seventh year of Jehoiachin's exile, 570 BCE), which falls outside the typical chronological framework of Ezekiel's prophetic service. This later date, coming after the conclusion of Nebuchadnezzar's thirteen-year siege of Tyre, has led interpreters to suggest this oracle was updated to reflect the long duration of the Tyre siege and its outcome. The initial part (29:17-21) explains that YHWH will give Nebuchadnezzar the land of Egypt as compensation for the futile effort and lack of booty from the Tyre siege, despite Tyre submitting. This section is formulated as a direct communication from YHWH rather than an instruction to Ezekiel. The second part (30:1-19) is introduced more conventionally and announces the Day of YHWH against Egypt, portraying devastation across the land from north (Migdol) to south (Syene) and mentioning allies like Cush, Put, Lud, and Cub. This oracle also attributes the impending demise to YHWH.
The Day of YHWH Tradition in the Oracles (Ezekiel 30): Within the second Egyptian oracle (Ezekiel 30:1-19), the concept of the Day of YHWH is applied to Egypt. This tradition in prophetic literature is understood as a day of judgment against YHWH’s enemies. While sometimes interpreted eschatologically, the source emphasizes that in contexts like this, it concerns events of the present and historical future. The idea derives from the temple's cultic setting, where YHWH's revelation occurs, symbolizing YHWH's action in the world to restore the holy order against chaos. The Day of YHWH against Egypt in this oracle is specifically linked to Nebuchadnezzar’s intended conquest following his campaigns against Judah and Tyre. It is described as a day of cloud (recalling divine theophanies) and warring nations (invading forces). Despite the oracle’s anticipation, Nebuchadnezzar's failure to conquer Egypt left this specific "Day of YHWH" unfulfilled historically.
The Allegory of the Tree (Ezekiel 31): The second oracular account concerning Pharaoh (Ezekiel 31:1-18) is formulated as an allegory delivered as YHWH's instruction to Ezekiel. It compares Pharaoh to Assyria, which is portrayed as a high and mighty cedar tree in the Garden of Eden. This comparison is based on the historical relationship where Egypt had been a close ally and even a vassal of Assyria. The oracle depicts the tree (representing Assyria) as unparalleled in grandeur, nourished by divine waters, providing shelter to nations (birds and animals). However, due to its arrogance and attempts to dominate others, YHWH fells the tree, giving it over to the mightiest of nations (presumably Babylon) to be chopped down and scattered. This imagery borrows from Isaian oracles against the Assyrian king and elements of Assyrian mythology where the ideal king is portrayed as a tree. The fall of the tree signifies the downfall of Assyria. The oracle applies this historical example and allegory to Pharaoh, concluding with a rhetorical question that underscores his impending doom, suggesting he, like Assyria, will be brought down to the underworld.
The Dirge Oracle (Ezekiel 32:1-16) and its Imagery: The third oracle concerning Pharaoh and Egypt is presented as a dirge (lament) that YHWH instructs Ezekiel to intone. Dated to 585 BCE, after the destruction of Jerusalem, it expresses the expectation that the Babylonian army would next move against Egypt, although this never fully materialized historically. The oracle uses powerful metaphors for the Pharaoh: first as a fierce lion among nations (a common self-depiction by Egyptian kings, but here doomed) and then as a dragon or serpent in the seas (representing the forces of chaos that disturb order, recalling creation myths). This dragon/Pharaoh is depicted disturbing the Nile waters. The oracle details YHWH’s actions to capture the Pharaoh/beast with a net and cast him out, his carcass devoured by animals, and his blood defiling the land. YHWH also darkens the heavens and land, recalling the Exodus plagues, to demonstrate divine power. Babylon is identified as YHWH's agent in bringing this judgment. The oracle also portrays the devastation of the land, with its waters becoming still and clear after the chaos, symbolizing the end of Egyptian life and prosperity.
Key Motifs and Theological Concepts: Several recurring motifs and theological concepts weave through these oracles. The "recognition formula" ("they/you shall know that I am YHWH") appears repeatedly, signifying that the judgment and downfall of Egypt are intended to reveal YHWH's presence, power, and sovereignty not only to Egyptians but also to the nations. Babylonia is consistently portrayed as YHWH's chosen agent for executing judgment against Egypt and other nations, reflecting Ezekiel’s pro-Babylonian stance, which aligns with aspects of King Josiah’s foreign policy. Numerous connections are made to the Exodus tradition, including the analogy of forty years of wandering/punishment, the motif of YHWH's outstretched arm used against Pharaoh, the darkening of the land akin to the plagues, and YHWH's revelation through cloud imagery. The concept of YHWH as the creator God who defeats forces of chaos, often represented by sea monsters or arrogant powers like Pharaoh, is central to the judgment against Egypt, framing historical events within a cosmic battle for order.