Source: “The Holy Grail: The History Of A Legend”, By Richard Barber, Published in Penguin Books, 2005.
Completing The Grail The Grail Hero Robert de Boron.wav
This podcast delves into the evolution of the Grail narrative, particularly focusing on the continuations of Chrétien de Troyes's unfinished Story of the Grail and the transformative contribution of Robert de Boron. While Chrétien's initial work sparked widespread fascination with the "holy thing," subsequent authors, largely based in north-east France and Flanders, expanded the tale, often making it a "baggy monster" filled with contradictions and additional adventures. A pivotal shift occurs with Robert de Boron, who redefines the Grail not as a mere element in a knightly romance, but as the central, sacred focus, tracing its history back to the Last Supper and Joseph of Arimathea, thereby "sanctifying the Grail hero" and imbuing the legend with profound spiritual significance. This contrast highlights two distinct approaches to the Grail story: one as a secular adventure supplemented by religious elements, and the other as a devout, historical account rooted in Christian theology.
Topic 1: Chrétien's Unfinished Work and the Popularity of Grail Romances Chrétien de Troyes' "The Story of the Grail," which ceased abruptly around 1180, became an extremely influential but incomplete masterpiece. Chrétien's significant reputation as a storyteller was instrumental in making the Grail widely known. The very nature of his unfinished tale created a compelling opportunity for other imaginative writers. Within approximately three to four decades after Chrétien's work, romances designed to continue his story were prevalent. These later authors were driven not only to provide an ending for the adventures of Perceval, the central character, but also to define the profound mystery at the heart of the romance: the Grail itself, a concept that was largely unknown before Chrétien brought it to prominence. This period saw a rapid spread of Grail romances, capitalizing on the inherent fascination with an uncompleted literary work, offering a canvas for diverse interpretations and elaborations.
Topic 2: The Complex and Challenging Nature of the Grail Continuations The challenge of completing Chrétien's Grail story was embraced by not just one, but at least half a dozen different writers, each approaching the task in distinct ways. Unlike modern literature, it is nearly impossible to arrange these Grail romances in a precise chronological order based on the surviving evidence. We can only ascertain that they were composed within a relatively short timeframe of three or four decades around the beginning of the thirteenth century, and any attempts at sequencing them are speculative. Medieval romances are notoriously difficult to date, often lacking original authorial manuscripts with explicit dates or names. Moreover, even when an author's name is known, personal historical details are often absent, as was the case even for Chrétien, despite his fame. These continuations are not only difficult for scholars to disentangle but also pose a challenge for readers due to their often convoluted narratives. Scholars have frequently tended to extract specific details to support their own theories rather than examining the continuations as coherent wholes. The sheer volume of these additional contributions—ranging from 37,000 to 42,000 lines—dwarfs Chrétien's original 9,000 lines. This expansion often led to contradictions and narrative confusions, transforming Chrétien's tightly plotted poem into what is described as a "baggy monster," which absorbed disparate elements from other romances, including even complete, independent tales like the story of Carados. The approaches of the continuators and their content and emphasis frequently diverged from Chrétien's original vision.
Topic 3: Patronage and Geographic Origins of the Grail Continuations "The Story of the Grail" was initially commissioned and supported by Philip, Count of Flanders. It appears highly probable that the subsequent continuations of the romance were closely linked to his successors in Flanders. While the First Continuation's author is unknown, manuscript evidence points to its origins in Burgundy or Champagne, with the earliest copies from this region dating to the early thirteenth century, reaching Picardy and Paris decades later. This suggests a potential but tenuous connection between the Flemish rulers and this first continuation. However, Wauchier de Denain, the author of the Second Continuation, most likely produced his work for Jeanne, Philip's granddaughter, who served as Countess of Flanders from 1212 to 1244. This is supported by the fact that Jeanne commissioned another of his poems, and he also adapted lives of early saints for her uncle. Manessier, the equally enigmatic author of the Third Continuation, explicitly states at the end of his work that he completed the story for Countess Jeanne. The Flemish court was renowned for its literary patronage, particularly for romances, leading to the argument that "The Story of the Grail" was considered the property of the ruling family, with dynastic associations. Jeanne's patronage of Manessier may have been a strategic move to reinforce her position as Philip of Flanders' legitimate heir, especially as her claim was challenged by an impostor. Gerbert de Montreuil, author of the Fourth Continuation, is a more historically discernible figure, known for "Le Roman de la Violette," written for the Countess of Ponthieu in north-east France around 1227-29, and he may have had connections to the French royal court. Despite these different patrons and authors, the early origins of the Grail story, including its continuations, remain closely tied to north-east France and the Flemish border region, with particular associations with the Flemish nobility and links to the crusading movement.
Topic 4: The Gawain-Focused First Continuation and the Emergence of "Holy Grail" The First Continuation directly follows Chrétien's poem, concentrating its narrative on Gawain, who was the focus when Chrétien's work ended. Unlike Chrétien, who intermittently returned to Perceval, this author largely ignores him. Gawain's primary quest in this continuation is for the bleeding lance, a pursuit Chrétien had emphasized, albeit as a parallel to Perceval's own adventures. Gawain visits the Grail castle on two separate occasions. During his initial visit, he is presented with a challenge that Perceval did not encounter: mending a broken sword, which serves as a preliminary test of his readiness to ask the crucial question about the Grail. Though he fails to perfectly mend the sword, he witnesses the Grail procession. In this depiction, a grieving girl carries the Grail, which is now explicitly referred to as "the Holy Grail," marking perhaps its first full titular appearance. Chrétien had only called it "a holy thing" or "the rich Grail." On his second visit, Gawain learns from his host about the history and significance of the bleeding lance, connecting it to the Grail and the crucifixion of Christ. This integration of new Grail lore into Chrétien's framework, especially for Gawain's quest, creates a paradox: Gawain, typically portrayed as a secular Arthurian hero, is involved in an adventure of deep spiritual resonance that seems out of character for the anonymous author, who generally prefers more conventional knight-errantry episodes. The Grail also miraculously feeds the assembled company during Gawain's second visit, appearing and disappearing mysteriously. However, despite his curiosity, Gawain falls asleep from exhaustion and fails to ask the vital question. The story then diverges to focus on Gawain's brother, Guerrehet, and ends far removed from the Grail theme.
Topic 5: Perceval's Encounters and Continued Quest in the Second and Third Continuations In Wauchier de Denain's Second Continuation, Perceval is indeed the hero, but his adventures have surprisingly little direct connection to the Grail. Instead, much of what is learned about the Grail comes from Gawain's account of his experiences at the Fisher King's castle, which largely repeats the description of the Grail and bleeding lance found in the First Continuation. Perceval's encounters with the Grail are often indirect or symbolic; for instance, he sees five candle-like lights in the forest at night, described as illuminating the dense woods with their brilliance. The next day, he learns this light was a sign of the Grail's presence with the Fisher King in the forest, emphasizing its protective power against evil. It is only at the conclusion of Wauchier's work that Perceval finally returns to the Grail castle. He witnesses another marvel—an oak tree blazing with a thousand candles—before reaching the castle. Inside, he is welcomed by the king and during dinner, a procession appears: a girl carrying the Holy Grail, followed by another carrying the bleeding lance, and a boy with a broken sword. Perceval questions the Grail and lance, but the king delays answers, focusing on Perceval's prior adventures and promising more information after dinner. Perceval presses him about the sword, which the king hopes he can mend. Perceval successfully joins the pieces, though a small notch remains. With this, Wauchier's work ends, leaving Perceval without full knowledge of the Grail or the completion of his quest. The Third Continuation, by Manessier, takes a more direct approach by immediately providing answers to Perceval's questions. The king explains the lance's history, incorporating details from various new Grail stories. However, the primary focus of Manessier's narrative shifts to the broken sword that Perceval repaired. Perceval learns it was used by a knight named Partinial to treacherously kill the Fisher King's brother and vows to avenge him. This quest for Partinial occupies most of the romance, culminating in a duel where Partinial is slain. Perceval returns triumphantly to the Grail castle with Partinial's head and is joyfully received by the Fisher King, who reveals that Perceval is his nephew. The Grail appears three times during these adventures: first, to heal Perceval and Ector (Lancelot's brother) after they unknowingly fight and are near death; second, as the crucial scene of Perceval's Grail achievement, where it fills the tables with delectable dishes, though the specific question from Chrétien's work is not directly repeated; and finally, after the Fisher King's death, at Perceval's coronation feast, where the Grail serves the assembled kings daily for a month. The conclusion reveals Perceval ruling for seven years before becoming a hermit, with the Grail, lance, and trencher following him. Upon his death, the Grail vanishes forever from the earth.
Topic 6: Gerbert de Montreuil's Spiritual and Transformative Continuation Gerbert de Montreuil, the author of the Fourth Continuation, which is uniquely inserted between the Second and Third Continuations in some manuscripts, is depicted as a more refined and learned writer than his fellow continuators. Instead of immediately revealing the Grail's secrets, Gerbert strategically delays this exposition. He uses the small notch remaining in the sword Perceval mended as a symbol, indicating that despite Perceval's significant spiritual progress, he is not yet ready to fully comprehend the Grail and lance's secrets because he has not yet atoned for his sin against his mother, who died of grief when he left her to become a knight. Upon leaving the Grail castle, Perceval encounters an enclosed garden, the Earthly Paradise, which he cannot enter. A significant consequence of Perceval's asking questions of the Fisher King is the transformation of the surrounding wasteland into a verdant and pleasant landscape, a key moment emphasizing spiritual growth and its impact on the physical world. Gerbert's narrative then unfolds a series of adventures involving encounters with demons and ghosts, each imbued with spiritual significance, placing the story in a new, more overtly spiritual realm that differs from Chrétien's original. While Gerbert also continues Gawain's adventures, these are depicted as entirely secular, and Gawain's quest for the lance is notably omitted. Eventually, Gerbert returns to Perceval's narrative, leading him back to the Grail castle where he finally mends the broken sword perfectly. Gerbert, having refrained from bringing Perceval or Gawain back to the Grail castle until this point, likely concluded his own story with the Grail's reappearance and Perceval's succession to the Fisher King. However, the surviving text of his work is adapted to seamlessly connect to the beginning of Manessier's Continuation by repeating lines from the end of Wauchier's story.
Topic 7: The "Prologues" and Their Confused Attempts at Contextualization The perceived confusion arising from the various and sometimes contradictory Grail continuations prompted two authors to create prologues aimed at providing context and explanation. These are known as the Bliocadran Prologue and the Elucidation Prologue, which offer very different perspectives on the work. The Bliocadran Prologue emphasizes Perceval's family and lineage, particularly Bliocadran, his father. It explains how Perceval and his mother came to live in impoverished circumstances deep in the forest. This prologue highlights a darker side of chivalry, portraying tournaments—which were highly esteemed in Chrétien's stories—as brutal and destructive. It states that Perceval's father and eleven of his brothers died in tournaments, leading his mother to flee to a remote forest manor. This account directly contradicts Chrétien's version, where Perceval's father is simply depicted as having fallen on hard times, and his sons are killed in an unspecified quarrel, with the father dying of grief. The Bliocadran Prologue introduces the concept of using a knightly romance to critique knightly ideals and the dangers of pursuing glory, a theme that reappears in later Grail romances. However, it provides little insight into the author's view of Chrétien's original work and nothing about the concept of the Grail itself. The Elucidation Prologue is described as a much stranger and more muddled piece. It begins with an apparently unrelated folktale about girls living by forest wells, offering food and drink in golden cups to passers-by. This story, which involves the theft of cups and the rape of girls by King Amangons and his knights (avenged by Arthur's knights), is confusing and contradictory even on its own terms, and its connection to the Grail story is never clearly explained. When the narrator finally turns to the Grail, he immediately spoils the suspense by revealing that Perceval the Welshman asks whom the Grail served, but fails to ask about the lance, its bleeding, the broken sword, or the vanishing castle, thus portraying Perceval's success as only partial. The description of the Grail's appearance, serving everyone with royal dishes without any attendants, closely mirrors the First Continuation. This prologue vaguely references seven "branches" of the "Court of the Rich Fisherman," promising to tell stories about the lance of Longinus, the loss of Huden, and other disparate Arthurian adventures, yet it ultimately suggests merely repeating Chrétien's work. It reflects an author who views the Grail as just another knightly adventure, while also incorporating elements of natural magic, like the land being repeopled and streams flowing again due to the Grail's presence, echoing descriptions from the First Continuation. The prologue introduces an immoral "Order of the Peers of the Rich Retinue" who rival Arthur's court before being overthrown. The Elucidation Prologue, despite its name, clarifies nothing and appears to be an amateurish, derivative attempt, misinterpreting copied episodes and clumsily integrating unrelated adventures, rather than drawing on older, independent sources.
Topic 8: Robert de Boron's Radical Reimagining of the Grail Story Robert de Boron is a pivotal figure in the evolution of the Grail narrative, as he approaches the story from a fundamentally different perspective than Chrétien and his continuators. Chrétien's "The Story of the Grail," even in its extended forms within the continuations, centers on the Grail and lance primarily in relation to Perceval and Gawain, with events occurring within Perceval's lifetime and set against the backdrop of Arthur's court. In contrast, Robert de Boron completely re-envisions the subject. For him, the Grail itself becomes the absolute focal point, and he traces its history back to the time of Christ, connecting it intimately with the Gospel narrative and apocryphal gospels. His work deviates significantly from a typical romance, adopting the solemn tone of saints' lives and religious narratives that were popular in twelfth-century French verse. His genius lies in recognizing the potential to fuse this genre of religious verse, which made sacred material accessible to an increasingly sophisticated lay audience, with the newly fashionable knightly romances, especially given Chrétien's own subtle shift towards a more spiritual understanding of the knight's role. Robert de Boron explicitly titles his book "L'Estoire dou Graal" ("The History of the Grail"), signaling his claim to greater authority and historical accuracy compared to Chrétien's work, which he implicitly designates as merely a "tale" about the Grail, "Li Contes del Graal." This distinction highlights a profound shift in how the Grail was conceived and presented. Robert de Boron likely planned his work as a trilogy, beginning with the early history of the Grail (Joseph of Arimathea), followed by the story of Merlin and Arthur (Merlin), and concluding with Perceval's story, the dispersal of the Round Table, and Arthur's death. Although the original verse versions of the complete trilogy do not survive, parts of "Joseph of Arimathea" and "Merlin" are extant in prose reworkings, while only two differing prose versions of "Perceval" remain.
Topic 9: Robert de Boron's Conception of the Grail's Christian Origins and Purpose In Robert de Boron's expansive narrative, the Grail serves as the constant central point, from its inception to its final disappearance, weaving together a wide array of adventures and even the entire history of King Arthur. He introduces a new "Grail hero" in the figure of Joseph of Arimathea, who becomes the initial guardian of the sacred object. Robert de Boron may have chosen Joseph, in part, due to his portrayal in the New Testament as a "decurio," a military title that could be interpreted as a soldier or councillor, thus making him a suitable role model for the knightly audience. The story begins by revealing that the vessel Christ used to break bread at the Last Supper was taken by one of His captors, given to Pilate, who in turn, wishing no possession of Jesus, gave it to Joseph. It is in this vessel that Joseph collects the blood flowing from Christ's wounds after taking Him down from the Cross. When Christ's body vanishes from the tomb after the Resurrection, Joseph is imprisoned. There, Our Lord appears to him, bearing the vessel, and declares His resurrection. He entrusts the vessel to Joseph, commanding him to celebrate Mass in commemoration of His crucifixion. Christ further explains that the vessel is a reminder of the stone tomb where Joseph laid Him, the paten (lid) a reminder of the tomb's covering, and the corporal cloth a reminder of His winding-sheet, ensuring Joseph's act of devotion is remembered forever. He promises that all who see the vessel and remain in its presence will experience lasting joy and spiritual fulfillment, and those who heed these words will be blessed. It is within this deeply sacred context that Robert de Boron first explicitly names the vessel as the Grail, emphasizing its inherent power and holiness. The name "Grail" is ingeniously linked to the Old French word "agreer" (to delight), explaining that it brings immense joy to those who are worthy of its presence, an etymology that became widely accepted in subsequent romances.
Topic 10: The Sacred Lineage of Grail Keepers and the Three Holy Tables in Robert de Boron Robert de Boron's narrative meticulously establishes a sacred lineage of Grail keepers and introduces the concept of three holy tables, each connected to the Grail. After Joseph of Arimathea is freed from prison, he gathers a community of disciples around him, devoutly guarding the holy vessel. However, some of his followers succumb to sin, resulting in widespread famine. Joseph is then divinely commanded to construct a table reminiscent of the Last Supper, upon which the Grail is to be placed, covered by a cloth. He is instructed to invite only those who truly believe to sit at this table. Those who sit experience profound sweetness and spiritual fulfillment, which causes them to forget the uninvited who stand apart. This discernment reveals the sin of the standing group, connecting their transgression directly to the famine. It is in this ecstatic and revelatory context that the vessel is formally named the "Grail," signifying the delight and joy it brings to the worthy. The guardianship of the Grail subsequently passes to Joseph's brother-in-law, Bron, who thereafter becomes known as the Fisher King. From this point, Bron and his companions are collectively referred to as "the company of the Grail." Merlin plays a crucial role in perpetuating this sacred history, dictating the deeds of both the Grail company and King Arthur's court to his disciple, Master Blaise. Merlin prophesies that Blaise's record, which will be called "The Book of the Grail," will be eagerly received and will contain only good and beneficial words and deeds. A significant moment occurs when Merlin encourages Uther Pendragon, Arthur's father, to establish the Round Table. This Round Table is revealed as the third of the three holy tables foretold by Christ in His command to Joseph of Arimathea; the first being the Last Supper, and the second, the table of the Grail company. The Round Table is destined to have one seat left vacant, which can only be filled by a knight who has been in the Grail's presence. Merlin later informs King Arthur that the Round Table is intricately connected to the Grail, and Arthur's own destiny—to become emperor of Rome—cannot be fulfilled until a knight of the Round Table performs sufficient feats of arms and chivalry to become the world's most renowned knight. When this preeminent knight reaches the court of the rich Fisher King and asks about the Grail's purpose, the Fisher King will be instantly healed. The king will then disclose the sacred words of Our Lord before his death, and the worthy knight will inherit the keeping of the blood of Jesus Christ. With this accomplishment, the enchantments plaguing the land of Britain will vanish, and the ancient prophecy will be fulfilled. The story culminates with Perceval, the destined knight, achieving this goal, becoming the Grail's keeper, and receiving the sacred teachings from the Fisher King, thus casting out the enchantments from Britain.