Source: John J. Collins, The Apocalyptic Imagination: An Introduction to Jewish Apocalyptic Literature, Third Edition (Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2016), 240–289.
This podcast examines three Jewish apocalypses written after the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE: 4 Ezra, 2 Baruch, and the Apocalypse of Abraham, viewing them as responses to this catastrophe. It analyzes their structure, arguing that despite internal inconsistencies, they generally exhibit a seven-part design. The text explores the theodicy (justice of God) issues they grapple with and their differing perspectives on topics like human sinfulness, the law, and the coming messianic age, contrasting Ezra's skepticism with Baruch's emphasis on obedience and Abraham's mystical tradition.
1. The Response of Apocalyptic Literature to the Catastrophe of 70 CE: The sources highlight that while no extant Jewish apocalypses can be directly associated with the Jewish revolt against Rome that began in 66 CE, several significant works emerged after the fall of the Temple in 70 CE. These include 4 Ezra, 2 Baruch, and the Apocalypse of Abraham, all likely composed in the land of Israel, and 3 Baruch, probably from the Diaspora. These books are viewed as a cluster of Jewish responses to the national tragedy of 70 CE. Although not composed in the midst of the conflict, the underlying questions of these works were significantly shaped by the catastrophe. They grapple with the implications of the destruction, seeking to understand its meaning and maintain hope for the future in the face of such devastation. The pseudonymous nature of these works, often attributing revelations to ancient figures like Ezra or Baruch who lived during the Babylonian destruction of the First Temple, serves to place the problems of 70 CE in a broader historical context, viewing them as a reenactment of earlier paradigms of Jewish history and suffering. The destruction of the Temple serves as a catalyst for deeper theological reflection, particularly on issues of divine justice (theodicy).
2. 4 Ezra's Exploration of Theodicy, Skepticism, and Transformation: 4 Ezra, one of the most profound of these post-catastrophe apocalypses, is characterized by its intense engagement with the problem of divine justice and the fate of Israel. The work is structured around seven units, prominently featuring dialogues between the pseudonymous visionary Ezra and the angel Uriel. In these early dialogues, Ezra voices deep skepticism and complaint, questioning why Zion has been ruined while other nations prosper, why the law seems ineffective, and why humanity appears inherently inclined to evil. He challenges God's justice and finds the traditional covenantal framework insufficient to explain the current suffering. Ezra's skepticism is presented with unusual intensity, reminiscent of the biblical Job. The angel's initial replies often emphasize Ezra's limited human understanding and the vastness of God's ways, diverting attention from the painful present to the promised future and the impending end of the age. A key turning point occurs in the fourth unit with the vision of the grieving woman who transforms into the city of Zion. This vision prompts Ezra to shift from complaining to comforting, inadvertently applying the angel's perspective to himself. This encounter, along with subsequent dream visions of the Eagle (symbolizing the Roman Empire) and the Man from the Sea (the Messiah), consolidates Ezra's acceptance of the apocalyptic revelation. He moves from a position of skeptical doubt to becoming a mediator of divine revelation himself in the final chapter, dictating 94 books (24 publicly released as the Hebrew Bible, 70 reserved for the wise). This transformation represents a shift from his initial Deuteronomic/covenantal presuppositions to an acceptance of apocalyptic wisdom and the necessity of judgment based on individual merit and a distinction between "this world" and "the world to come." The book suggests this conversion experience is crucial for navigating the dilemmas posed by history.
3. 2 Baruch's Emphasis on the Law, Covenantal Nomism, and Eschatological Consolation: 2 Baruch is presented as closely related to 4 Ezra, composed around the same time and sharing many structural and thematic similarities. However, it exhibits a notably different tone and theological emphasis. Unlike Ezra, the pseudonymous Baruch is given advance warning of Jerusalem's destruction and an explanation for it from the outset, immediately providing a framework of divine providence. While expressing profound grief in a lament, Baruch does not engage in the deep skeptical questioning characteristic of Ezra. His distress is less pronounced, and he readily accepts the explanations provided, often directly by God, not just an angel. The book strongly emphasizes the importance of observing the Law as the basis for salvation and protection. This perspective, described as "covenantal nomism," asserts that salvation depends on God's mercy for those within the covenant who are obedient. The eschatological revelations in 2 Baruch, including visions like the cloud and waters, are clearly subordinated to this central message of obedience to the Law. While acknowledging the two ages ("this world" and "the world to come") and featuring a messianic expectation similar to 4 Ezra (though perhaps less detailed on the messiah's death), 2 Baruch places greater stress on the continuity provided by the Law. The covenant people are redefined not simply by ethnicity but by adherence to the Law, including proselytes and excluding apostates. The book is seen as closely related to the emerging rabbinic Judaism of the period, sharing concerns like reconstituting Jewish life around the Torah after the Temple's destruction and exhibiting a more optimistic view than 4 Ezra regarding the number of the saved and the possibility of repentance and mercy.
4. The Apocalypse of Abraham's Mystical Cosmology, Struggle Against Idolatry, and Dualistic Elements: The Apocalypse of Abraham offers a distinct perspective compared to 4 Ezra and 2 Baruch, drawing on a different theological tradition with mystical tendencies. The work combines a legend of Abraham's conversion from idolatry with an apocalyptic revelation received during a heavenly journey. Unlike the focus on the Law in 2 Baruch or the intense dialogue in 4 Ezra, this apocalypse centers on Abraham's rejection of idolatry, which defines the chosen people, and grapples with the problem of evil, particularly in the form of idolatry among Jews themselves, leading to the Temple's destruction. Key supernatural figures include Jaoel, an angelic guide with characteristics similar to Metatron in later mystical texts, and Azazel, depicted as a fallen angel and a power influencing those who choose evil. The apocalypse features Abraham's ascent to the seventh heaven, participation in a heavenly song, and a vision of the divine throne, elements linked to Merkavah mysticism. From this vantage point, Abraham views a "picture" reflecting creation, history, and humanity, which is divided into two groups (chosen people and Gentiles) and influenced by Azazel. History is presented as predetermined and periodized, culminating in judgment and salvation. The book attributes Jewish sin and the Temple's destruction to human free will and the prevalence of idolatry, showing less anguish over the severity of the punishment than 4 Ezra. While emphasizing individual choice in falling under Azazel's influence, the book also exhibits dualistic tendencies, though God's ultimate supremacy is maintained. Its eschatology includes retribution for the wicked (including those who defiled the Temple) and restoration for the righteous remnant, with a focus on a future restoration of the Temple and judgment against the nations, although details, particularly concerning the messiah, are less clear and possibly influenced by later interpolations.
5. Shared Problems, Diverse Responses, and the Flexibility of the Apocalyptic Genre: Despite their significant differences in tone, structure, and theological emphasis, 4 Ezra, 2 Baruch, and the Apocalypse of Abraham address common problems arising from the destruction of the Jerusalem Temple in 70 CE. They all seek to explain the catastrophe within a divine plan, grapple with the question of theodicy, and offer hope for the future. They share a common apocalyptic framework, postulating the need for supernatural revelation beyond the Torah to understand the current crisis and emphasizing the existence of "another world" or age beyond the present one as the locus of ultimate salvation and justice. The shared use of pseudonymity (linking the present crisis to the Babylonian exile) and structural elements like seven-day periods and allegorical visions highlight their participation in the same genre. However, the sources demonstrate the flexibility of the apocalyptic genre during this period. 4 Ezra uses intense dialogue to explore skepticism and theodicy, leading to a dramatic conversion and highlighting the difficulty of human understanding and the scarcity of the saved. 2 Baruch, more rooted in traditional covenantalism and closer to rabbinic thought, emphasizes the sufficiency and necessity of the Law, presents a more optimistic outlook, and focuses on the community's adherence to Torah as the path to national restoration and individual salvation. The Apocalypse of Abraham, drawing on mystical traditions, confronts evil through cosmology and divine/angelic figures, frames the struggle in terms of rejecting idolatry, and offers hope through a combination of heavenly ascent, historical periodization, and future retribution/restoration. Together, these works illustrate how the apocalyptic genre provided a shared imaginative framework for responding to a devastating historical event while allowing for substantial diversity in theological perspectives, approaches to suffering, the role of the Law, and the nature of salvation.