Source: John J. Collins, The Apocalyptic Imagination: An Introduction to Jewish Apocalyptic Literature, Third Edition (Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2016), 143–177.
Apocalyptic Imagination, Oracles and Testaments.wav
This podcast delves into two significant genres of Hellenistic Jewish literature closely related to apocalypses: Sibylline Oracles and Testaments. It explains that Sibylline Oracles, adapted by Jews from a pagan tradition, were often used for political propaganda, particularly in their adaptation by Egyptian Jews who favored the Ptolemaic dynasty, and are characterized by a horizontal focus on earthly history and ethics rather than mystical or heavenly realms. The section on Testaments highlights their form as farewell discourses, exemplified by the Testament of Moses, which features a review of history, emphasizes covenantal nomism (salvation through law observance), and advocates for nonviolent resistance like that of Taxo. Ultimately, both genres share features with apocalypses, such as pseudonymity and predictions of the future, but the Testaments also incorporate messianic expectation, sometimes envisioning dual leadership from Levi and Judah.
1. The Genre of Sibylline Oracles: The sources discuss the genre of sibylline oracles, which had a long history in the Hellenistic world before being adopted by Jewish authors. Pagan sibyls were known as ecstatic women who uttered prophecies, often of a gloomy nature. Famous pagan collections existed, such as the official one at Rome, and these oracles were interpreted with reference to historical and political events. They were sometimes concerned with prodigies, and some fragments prophesied political outcomes, like Rome's perpetual subjection of Italy and the Latins. The genre was closely related to the political oracles of the Hellenistic age, including those from Egypt and Persia. Jewish authors took over this form, notably in the Sibylline Oracles collection, which includes Jewish books dating from the period between the Maccabees and Bar Kokhba, with some later material. Unlike apocalypses attributed to Israelite figures like Daniel or Enoch, these Jewish oracles are attributed to the pagan sibyl, explicitly entering the world of Hellenistic propaganda. Sib. Or. 3 is identified as the oldest of the Jewish books, though it is a complex composition gathering material over two centuries. It contains both Jewish and apparently pagan material, including pronouncements of doom against various peoples and places. The inclusion of seemingly pagan oracles, such as one against Rome or references to the Erythrean Sibyl singing of the Trojan war, may have served to establish the Sibylline credentials of the book. These oracles often served a propagandistic function, presenting Judaism in ethical terms (avoiding idolatry, superstition, sexual misconduct) integrated into a political vision. The use of the sibyl's name and the oracular form, sometimes employing prophecy after the event, aimed to lend authority and inevitability to the message, making it a suitable medium for Jewish propaganda in the Hellenistic world.
2. The Genre of Testamentary Literature: Testamentary literature is another literary genre related to apocalypses that emerged in the Hellenistic age. A testament is characterized as a discourse delivered by a speaker, typically a father or leader, in anticipation of imminent death. The discourse is usually in the first person, framed by a third-person narrative describing the setting and the speaker's eventual death. Biblical prototypes include the blessings of Jacob and Moses. Jewish and Christian pseudepigrapha contain numerous examples attributed to figures like the twelve patriarchs, Moses, and Job, often incorporating substantial Jewish material even when the final form is Christian. The Testament of Moses is a key example, known from a Latin manuscript. This work, likely corresponding to the Testament of Moses known in antiquity, is a prophecy delivered by Moses before his death. It begins with Moses commissioning Joshua as his successor and then provides an extensive prophecy of Israelite history, structured around a Deuteronomic pattern of sin and punishment. Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs are the most extensive corpus of this genre. Although their final form is Christian, they incorporate significant Jewish material, possibly drawing on earlier Hebrew or Aramaic sources like the Aramaic Levi apocryphon or a Hebrew Testament of Naphtali. These testaments generally follow a consistent pattern: a historical retrospective (often narrating the patriarch's life), ethical exhortation, and predictions of the future (often using the sin-exile-return pattern). The historical segment provides examples, and the future predictions offer threats and promises to motivate ethical behavior. The ethical sections focus on individual virtues and are explicit and lengthy, leading some scholars to see affinities with wisdom literature.
3. Relationship between Sibylline Oracles and Apocalypses: The sources explore the relationship between sibylline oracles and historical apocalypses, noting both continuities and distinctions. Both genres emerge clearly around the period of the Maccabean revolt. Similarities include the use of pseudonymity, historical reviews, periodization of history, and the expectation of a definitive kingdom. For example, both lend authority by being attributed to venerable figures from the past (the sibyl or biblical figures like Daniel or Enoch). The review of history in both conveys a sense of divine design or a predetermined course of events. However, key differences are noted. One proposed distinction concerns their function: apocalypses are sometimes seen as "conventicle literature" for internal use, while sibyllines are described as outward-directed "missionary propaganda" aimed at a Gentile audience, a function not typically served by Jewish apocalypses. Another significant difference lies in their structural framework. While both use an eschatological horizon to frame ethical and political messages, sibylline oracles rely primarily on a "horizontal axis" of authority – the sibyl's name, historical allusions, and the expectation of an earthly kingdom. Apocalypses, in contrast, include a "vertical axis," featuring interest in angels, demons, the heavenly world, and cosmology. Consequently, the oracles generally lack the mystical dimension of apocalypses. This difference is reflected in their eschatology; early Jewish sibyllines like Sib. Or. 3 focus on a political, earthly level and lack a judgment of the dead, although later books acquired this interest.
4. Relationship between Testamentary Literature and Apocalypses: The sources also discuss the relationship between testaments and apocalypses, highlighting affinities, especially with Daniel, but also theological differences. Both genres utilize pseudonymity, attributing the text to ancient, authoritative figures. Both often include a schematic review of history to support a particular perspective or stance. For example, the historical overview in the Testament of Moses, like that in Daniel, aims to assure the faithful that the world has a divine purpose, even amid current suffering. Both documents suggest that the culmination of history involves the revelation of a heavenly kingdom and that an angel plays a key role in this process. Furthermore, both can be seen as supporting a stance of martyrdom, where the faithful are encouraged to endure persecution and death rather than compromise their fidelity to the law, anticipating a future reward or vindication. However, there are crucial differences. The literary form is distinct: testaments are framed as a father's address to his sons or a leader to his people, whereas apocalypses are presented as supernatural revelations, often mediated by angels. The theology can also differ. While some apocalypses like Daniel and Enoch depict a deterministic course of history that humanity can only observe and react to, the Testament of Moses, rooted in Deuteronomic covenantal theology, suggests human intervention can change the course of events, though this is primarily by persuading God to act (e.g., through the mediation of figures like Taxo). The Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs, also displaying covenantal nomism, emphasize that the course of events is determined by human actions (sin-exile-return), contrasting with a more deterministic view. The Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs also contain extensive, explicit ethical exhortation, which is less characteristic of apocalypses. Despite these differences, the Testaments are considered witnesses to apocalypticism in a broader sense due to shared themes and elements, including apocalyptic visions within some testaments (like Levi's ascent) and connections to sources also used by apocalyptic literature (like the Aramaic Levi apocryphon and Enoch literature).
5. Messianic and Eschatological Expectations: A significant aspect discussed across both genres is the nature of future expectations, including the appearance of key figures and the culmination of history. In Sib. Or. 3, a central figure is the "seventh king of Egypt" from the Greek dynasty, a Ptolemaic ruler in whose reign a crucial turning point is anticipated. This figure is linked to the concept of a "king from the sun," which in Egyptian tradition is an old pharaonic title. The text suggests this Ptolemaic king is hailed as a virtual messiah, drawing an analogy to Cyrus being called God's "anointed one" in Isaiah, indicating that Jewish well-being can depend on a benevolent Gentile ruler. However, later oracles in Sib. Or. 3 from the first century BCE show declining confidence in the Ptolemies, especially after Cleopatra's defeat, leading to increased use of cosmic destruction imagery and the portrayal of figures like Nero as Beliar. In the Testament of Moses, the eschatological kingdom of God is ushered in following the martyrdom of Taxo and his seven sons, who die rather than break the law, trusting that their blood will be avenged by God. This nonviolent resistance leads to God's action, including vengeance on the enemy, cosmic upheavals, the binding of Satan, and Israel's astral exaltation. The Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs incorporate a complex messianic expectation. In their final form, they envisage a single messiah associated with both the tribe of Levi (representing priesthood) and the tribe of Judah (representing kingship). This likely adapts an earlier Jewish expectation of two messiahs (from Aaron/Levi and Israel/Judah), possibly in response to the Hasmonean combination of priestly and royal power. While Christian influence is evident in the identification of this figure with Christ, the underlying tradition of dual leadership existed in Judaism. These messianic passages describe figures who will save nations and Israel, judge, bind Beliar, and usher in a new era. The expectation of a priestly messiah may have arisen as a reaction to the perceived corruption of the priesthood in the Maccabean era. Furthermore, some Testaments include the expectation of the resurrection of the dead, a belief also attested in early apocalypses like Enoch and Daniel, adding another layer to their eschatological dimension. The Psalms of Solomon, while not strictly apocalyptic, provide important evidence for the expectation of a Davidic messiah before the turn of the era, often in opposition to the Hasmonean monarchy, and this figure is expected to restore Jerusalem.
What are Sibylline Oracles and how did they become a Jewish literary form?
Sibylline Oracles were a genre of prophecy known in the Hellenistic world, delivered by ecstatic women called sibyls, often containing predominantly gloomy predictions. This genre had a long tradition in pagan cultures, notably in Rome with its official collection and interpretation of oracles concerning historical and political events. Jewish writers in the Hellenistic period adopted this form around the time of the Maccabean revolt. Unlike other Jewish apocalyptic literature attributed to Israelite figures, the Jewish Sibylline Oracles were explicitly attributed to the pagan sibyl, serving as a way to engage with the Hellenistic world and its propaganda. They incorporated Jewish religious and ethical messages within the framework of this recognizable pagan prophetic form.
How does the structure and content of Sibylline Oracle 3 reflect its complex composition?