Source: John J. Collins, The Apocalyptic Imagination: An Introduction to Jewish Apocalyptic Literature, Third Edition (Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2016), 107–142.
Apocalyptic Imagination, Daniel.wav
This podcast examines the Book of Daniel, identifying it as a key example of apocalyptic literature in the Hebrew Bible, notable for its unique blending of historical tales and visionary prophecies. The text highlights significant differences between Daniel and other apocalyptic works, particularly the Enoch tradition, pointing out that Daniel presents a figure located in a more recent, though still historically problematic, past. A major point of analysis is the famous four-kingdom schema found in Daniel 2 and 7, which the podcast argues draws on older Near Eastern traditions and is reinterpreted in light of the persecution by Antiochus Epiphanes. Furthermore, we explore the debated unity and date of Daniel, noting the shifts in language and style between the tales and visions, and proposes that the visions were likely composed later during the Maccabean period to address the crisis. The analysis emphasizes how Daniel uses mythological imagery to symbolize political struggles and explores the significant figures of the "one like a son of man" and the "holy ones of the Most High," suggesting an interpretation that leans towards celestial beings representing the righteous community, leading to a discussion of the resurrection as a hope beyond persecution.
1. The Nature and Genre of Daniel as Apocalyptic Literature: The book of Daniel holds a unique place in the Hebrew Bible as its only comprehensive example of apocalyptic literature. This has led to it being treated as a model apocalypse, although it represents only one specific type of this genre. There is a scholarly effort to differentiate this canonical book from other, non-canonical apocalypses, sometimes dismissing the latter as imitations. However, significant differences exist between Daniel and other traditions, such as those found in Enoch. While Daniel contains elements found elsewhere in the apocalyptic tradition, it also distinguishes itself. For instance, it lacks the deep interest in cosmological speculation characteristic of large portions of the Enoch tradition, such as the Book of the Watchers and the Astronomical Book. Instead, Daniel's focus, particularly in the visions, shifts towards the course of history, though Enoch too includes historical preoccupations in some apocalypses. This places Daniel firmly within the apocalyptic genre, but highlights its specific characteristics and content emphases.
2. The Figure of Daniel and the Historical Questions in the Tales (Chapters 1-6): Unlike figures in some other apocalypses set in primordial antiquity, Daniel is presented as a figure from the relatively recent past, specifically within the historical setting of the Babylonian exile. However, this historical setting does not guarantee historical reliability. The book includes a collection of tales prefacing the visions that describe Daniel's career. These stories contain details that, in principle, could be verified historically, but attempts to do so have faced significant challenges. For example, the figure of Darius the Mede, presented as the conqueror of Babylon, is not known from historical sources, which identify Cyrus of Persia's general Gobryas as the conqueror and Cyrus's successor as Darius. It is suggested that the author created Darius the Mede to fit a traditional schema of four kingdoms where Media preceded Persia. Similarly, the story of Nebuchadnezzar's madness is thought to have evolved from traditions about the later king Nabonidus. These historical discrepancies are viewed not as challenges to theological truth but as questions of genre, suggesting that the "word of God" in this context can be literary fiction rather than factual reporting. The tales contain historical reminiscences and local color but use them as building blocks for the stories. The figure of Daniel himself might be more akin to legendary figures like Enoch than historical ones like Ezra or Baruch, despite being placed in a historical setting. References in Ezekiel suggest Daniel was a legendary figure known for wisdom and righteousness, possibly connected to the Ugaritic figure Dnil. The tales in Daniel 1-6 give this figure a new identity, portraying him as an interpreter of dreams and a colleague of Babylonian wise men. His wisdom is mantic, concerned with dreams and mysteries, and derived from prayer to God, contrasting with traditional Babylonian divination methods. The tales serve as a model for Jewish life in the Diaspora, showing how strict piety can be compatible with success in a foreign court and is even the key to it. They also contain veiled subversive political implications, such as the prediction that Gentile kingdoms will crumble, though Nebuchadnezzar in Daniel 2 appears oblivious to this aspect, highlighting the folktale structure where the hero is rewarded.
3. The Apocalyptic Visions, Imagery, and Key Figures (Chapters 7-12): The second half of Daniel, beginning with chapter 7, presents a significantly different atmosphere and style compared to the tales. These chapters feature Daniel himself as the dreamer of mysterious visions that require interpretation by an angel, marking a transition to the fully apocalyptic mode of revelation. Daniel 7, like Daniel 2, uses a four-kingdom schema but employs distinct imagery: beasts rising from the sea. This imagery draws heavily on traditional mythological motifs found in the Hebrew Bible (e.g., Yahweh defeating sea monsters like Rahab and Leviathan) and ancient Near Eastern myths (e.g., Baal's triumph over the sea god Yamm in Ugaritic texts). The winds stirring up the sea and the emergence of monstrous beasts evoke primordial chaos. These beasts symbolize Gentile kingdoms, but their monstrous depiction goes beyond mere factual identification, conveying a sense of terror and seeing these kingdoms as eruptions of chaos and manifestations of primordial forces, not just human rulers. The vision shifts to a scene of divine judgment with the Ancient of Days on a throne, a motif shared with Enochic visions. A judgment follows, leading to the destruction of the fourth beast and the diminishing of the others' power. This is followed by the appearance of "one like a son of man" coming with the clouds, to whom dominion and kingdom are given. The identity of this figure is debated, with interpretations ranging from a symbol for the Jewish people (corporate) to a messianic figure, or, strongly supported by the source's analysis, an angelic leader, likely Michael, the patron angel of Israel. Arguments for the angelic interpretation include the figure's contrast with the beasts, exaltation with clouds (a traditional divine epithet adapted for a subordinate angelic figure), parallels in Daniel 10-12 explicitly describing angelic conflict behind earthly wars, and similar uses of "son of man" or similar expressions for angels in other Jewish texts and the New Testament. The "holy ones of the Most High" who receive the kingdom are also interpreted as angels, especially given their usage elsewhere in Daniel and related literature, and the concept of homology between heavenly (angelic) and earthly (Jewish people) realities means that the kingdom is given to both.
4. The Date, Unity, and Composition of Daniel: A central scholarly debate regarding Daniel concerns its date of composition and unity. The argument for a late date for the visions (chapters 7-12) was notably articulated by the Neo-Platonic philosopher Porphyry in the third century, who observed that Daniel's "predictions" were accurate up to the time of Antiochus Epiphanes but not beyond, suggesting they were written during that period. This argument remains the consensus among critical scholars, placing the visions firmly in the second century BCE, during the persecution by Antiochus Epiphanes (starting around 167 BCE). The dating of the tales (chapters 1-6) is less certain and more debated. Doubts about the book's original unity arise from several factors: it is written in two languages (Hebrew and Aramaic), there is a formal shift from third-person tales about Daniel to first-person visions by Daniel, and there are later additions found in Greek versions (Susanna, Bel and the Dragon, Prayer of Azariah/Song of the Three Young Men), which point to the ongoing collection of Danielic material. While the additions don't necessarily speak to the Hebrew/Aramaic book's original composition, documents like the Qumran Prayer of Nabonidus suggest the tales drew on older traditions. The key argument against original unity comes from the content and date indications. The visions clearly reflect the Antiochan persecution, while the tales, though relevant, do not require a Maccabean date; their kings, though arrogant, show hope of reform, unlike the near-demonic Gentile kings in the visions. The optimistic attitude of the tales contrasts with the heightened crisis sense in the visions. The shift in tone coincides with the formal transition from tales to visions, but not precisely with the language change. It is proposed that the book's unity is secondary, achieved by an author in the Maccabean period who integrated an existing collection of older Aramaic tales with new visions, written primarily in Hebrew. This integration was achieved editorially, binding the sections together. Daniel 7, potentially composed slightly earlier in Aramaic, may have served as a bridge, connecting thematically to Daniel 2 and chronologically/thematically to chapters 8-12, despite creating chronological discrepancies in the sequence of kingdoms presented in the book as a whole.
5. The Message and Function of Daniel in Crisis: The book of Daniel is strongly tied to the historical crisis of the persecution under Antiochus Epiphanes. In this context, the visions and tales function to help the persecuted Jewish community cope. The tales, with their portrayal of Daniel and his friends maintaining fidelity while serving Gentile kings, represent a stance of compatibility between God's kingdom and Gentile kingdoms, relevant to Diaspora life. However, the Antiochan crisis shattered this compatibility, leading the visions to portray Gentile kingdoms as monstrous forces destined for destruction. A fundamental element is the belief in a predetermined course of history guided by higher powers, visualized through mythological symbolism (beasts, heavenly court, angelic conflict). This predetermined nature, emphasized in visions like Daniel 9 (reinterpreting Jeremiah's prophecy through "seventy weeks of years") and Daniel 10-12 (detailing the angelic battle behind Hellenistic wars), provides assurance that the end of Gentile supremacy is decreed and inevitable. The book highlights the role of the "wise teachers" (maśkîlîm), who understand the true meaning of events through angelic revelations. Their activism lies not in military conflict but in conveying this understanding to the wider community, helping them endure persecution. Daniel advocates a form of nonviolent resistance; the battle is ultimately left to Michael and the heavenly forces. The book offers hope of vindication beyond death through resurrection, particularly for the wise and those who suffer for their faith. Resurrection provides a rationale for martyrdom and a focus on a destiny of fellowship with the angels, a higher world from which earthly affairs are directed. Thus, Daniel functions to articulate the terror of the crisis, assure that evil will be overcome by divine power, and provide a framework for faithful endurance and martyrdom, based on a worldview where history is divinely controlled and destiny transcends earthly life.
1. What makes the Book of Daniel unique among books in the Hebrew Bible, and what are some of its key characteristics as an example of apocalyptic literature?
The Book of Daniel is distinguished as the only full-fledged example of apocalyptic literature in the Hebrew Bible. Apocalyptic literature is characterized by revelations, often delivered through visions and interpreted by supernatural beings (like angels), that unveil the true, often cosmic, nature of events and reveal a predetermined course of history leading to a final judgment and the establishment of a divine kingdom. Daniel exemplifies this through its symbolic visions, angelic interpretations, and a strong sense of determinism regarding the unfolding of historical events and their ultimate outcome. While Daniel is a significant example, it's important to note that it represents a specific type of Jewish apocalypse and shouldn't be treated as the sole model for the entire genre.
2. What are some of the historical issues present in the tales of Daniel (chapters 1-6), and how do scholars interpret these discrepancies?