Source: John J. Collins, The Apocalyptic Imagination: An Introduction to Jewish Apocalyptic Literature, Third Edition (Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2016), 321–351.
Apocalypticism in Early Christianity.wav
This podcast delves into the presence of apocalypticism within early Christianity, tracing its origins in Jewish apocalyptic thought and examining its influence on figures like Jesus and Paul, as well as the Book of Revelation. It explores the ongoing debate about whether Jesus himself held an apocalyptic worldview, contrasting this with interpretations of him as primarily a wisdom teacher, while highlighting the strong eschatological focus of early Christian communities and the writings within the New Testament. The text then specifically analyzes the Book of Revelation, positioning it as a distinct apocalyptic work despite its unique characteristics like the absence of pseudonymity and a letter format, and discusses how it adapts Jewish apocalyptic themes, notably in the portrayal of Jesus as both the slain Lamb and the divine warrior, ultimately reflecting a blend of inherited tradition and Christian innovation.
1. The Relationship Between Early Christianity and Jewish Apocalypticism: Early Christianity emerged from a movement within Judaism, specifically one associated with Jesus of Nazareth. This movement developed in the context of Jewish apocalypticism in the decades surrounding the first Jewish revolt against Rome. While the New Testament only includes one text explicitly labeled as an apocalypse, the Book of Revelation, the Synoptic Gospels and the writings of Paul are significantly influenced by an apocalyptic worldview. Jesus' preaching that the "kingdom of God was at hand" invites comparison with other figures described by Josephus, such as prophets and messianic pretenders. However, unlike the brief accounts of these figures, the Gospels provide extended narratives about Jesus, though these are written from a perspective of faith. A key question in New Testament scholarship is whether Jesus himself shared this apocalyptic worldview.
2. Scholarly Debate on Jesus' Eschatology: For much of the 20th century, a consensus existed among influential New Testament scholars, stemming from the work of Johannes Weiss and Albert Schweitzer, that Jesus' teaching was thoroughly eschatological. They argued that Jesus' concept of the kingdom of God referred not to an internal spiritual state but to a coming eschatological event. Rudolf Bultmann and Joachim Jeremias also held this view, interpreting Jesus' message as connected to the hope for salvation through a cosmic catastrophe, as documented in apocalyptic literature. However, this consensus was challenged in the late 20th century. Some scholars proposed that Jesus was primarily a wisdom teacher and that the kingdom was a present state rather than a future event, suggesting that overtly apocalyptic passages in the Gospels might be later additions by the early church. This revision was partly influenced by texts like the Gospel of Thomas, which some interpret as presenting a non-eschatological view of Jesus' sayings. Another factor was the study of the hypothetical source Q, with some scholars arguing that its apocalyptic elements are secondary. Despite these challenges, the view that Jesus was an apocalyptic prophet continues to be strongly defended, based in part on the well-attested fact that he preached the coming kingdom of God, a phrase that readily lent itself to eschatological interpretation within the context of Jewish literature from the land of Israel around that time.
3. The Significance of the "Son of Man" Concept: The interpretation of the "Son of Man" sayings in the Synoptic Gospels is deeply connected to the question of Jesus' apocalyptic eschatology, particularly in its cosmic sense. While some "Son of Man" sayings can be understood generically, referring simply to "a man" or "a human being," others, particularly those associated with coming on clouds, clearly allude to Daniel 7 and imply a context of cosmic judgment. Sayings that attribute specific authority to the "Son of Man," such as the authority to forgive sins or be lord of the Sabbath, likely presuppose a messianic understanding of the term. In the context of the Gospels, the "Son of Man" is identified with Jesus. This identification, especially regarding his coming on clouds, appears to presuppose the resurrection and ascension of Jesus and makes sense in the post-Easter early church, providing a framework for understanding Jesus as the messiah who would return after his unexpected death. However, some scholars maintain that Jesus may have referred to the figure in Daniel's vision without identifying himself with it, a position that continues to be debated. Regardless, the "Son of Man" sayings remain highly controversial due to the difficulty in establishing their authenticity.
4. The Centrality of the Resurrection and Paul's Apocalyptic Framework: The belief in Jesus' resurrection and ascension became a fundamental element of early Christian apocalypticism, serving as the foundation for the hope of his second coming. Paul's discussion in 1 Corinthians 15 is the earliest source we have on the resurrection. He presents Christ's resurrection not as an isolated miracle but as the "firstfruits" of a general resurrection, understanding it within a comprehensive eschatological scenario akin to those found in historical apocalypses. For Paul, since Christ has already been raised, the general resurrection and the end of the age are imminent. Paul's apocalyptic perspective is evident throughout his writings. While not always presented in the form of an apocalypse, his revelations are described as "mysteries" and sometimes involved visionary experiences, including being caught up to heaven. A crucial aspect of Paul's perspective is the affirmation of a world and life beyond the present one. Especially in his earlier letters like 1 Thessalonians, he expresses a strong expectation that the end would come soon, even within his own lifetime, with believers being caught up to meet the Lord in the air. This belief that "the form of this world is passing away" significantly shaped Paul's ethical advice, influencing how Christians should approach matters like marriage, possessions, and their relationship with worldly authorities. Paul's understanding of salvation is also tied to this framework, seeing identification with Christ's death and resurrection through baptism as the path to newness of life, anticipating future resurrection and a transformation into Christ's likeness. This perspective, grounded in the example of Jesus' suffering and resurrection, provides an ethical impetus, urging Christians to live in the present with an awareness of the coming end.
5. The Book of Revelation as a Distinctive Christian Apocalypse: The Book of Revelation is the prime example of the apocalypse genre in the New Testament and the only book explicitly presented as an "apokalypsis." It shares many features with Jewish apocalypses, including angelic mediation, visions, focus on eschatological judgment, and use of elaborate mythological imagery. However, it also exhibits distinctively Christian characteristics and deviations from Jewish conventions. Unlike most Jewish apocalypses, Revelation is presented as a circular letter to churches and is not pseudonymous; the author claims authority in his own name, possibly reflecting a renewal of prophecy in early Christianity. It also lacks an extensive review of past history from an "ex eventu" perspective. These differences stem partly from its location on the eschatological timeline: for the author of Revelation and other early Christian writers, a pivotal act of deliverance (the death and resurrection of Jesus) had already occurred, shifting the focus to the period between Christ's first coming and the end. The central role of Jesus Christ is paramount in Revelation. He is portrayed in ways that combine figures from Jewish tradition, such as the fusion of the Ancient of Days and the Son of Man, and is presented as the recipient of worship, marking a significant departure from Jewish precedent. The symbol of the "Lamb standing as if it had been slaughtered," alongside the traditional messianic "Lion," is also distinctively Christian, reflecting the sacrificial death of Jesus. Revelation also portrays Christ as a divine warrior coming in judgment, an image strikingly similar to portrayals in contemporary Jewish texts like 4 Ezra, but which stands in tension with the earthly life of Jesus as depicted in the Gospels. While Revelation advocates an ethic of martyrdom and resistance to the oppressive Roman Empire, emphasizing justice and judgment, some scholars note that its themes are closer to the ethical values found in Jewish apocalypses like Daniel and 4 Ezra than to the more distinctive teachings of Jesus, such as loving enemies. Despite scholarly debates about its genre and theological implications, Revelation provides a powerful expression of early Christian hopes and fears within an apocalyptic framework.
How did early Christianity emerge from within Judaism in relation to apocalypticism?
Early Christianity originated as a movement within Judaism, particularly in the decades around the first Jewish revolt against Rome. Jesus of Nazareth, the central figure, preached the imminent arrival of the kingdom of God and was executed by the Romans as a perceived royal pretender. This initial context invites comparison with other Jewish prophetic and messianic figures of the time, although the Gospels provide more detailed, albeit faith-influenced, accounts compared to sources like Josephus. While only the Book of Revelation is explicitly an apocalypse, the Synoptic Gospels and the writings of Paul are significantly influenced by an apocalyptic worldview. The extent to which Jesus himself held this view remains a subject of scholarly debate.
What were the dominant scholarly views on Jesus and eschatology in the 20th century?