Source: “When Christians Were Jews: The First Generation”, by Paula Fredriksen, 2018.
This podcast explores how the early followers of Jesus transitioned from expecting an immediate, miraculous Kingdom of God following his death to understanding his resurrection as a sign of its impending arrival. It highlights the discrepancies in accounts of Jesus' appearances across different New Testament sources (Gospels, Acts, and Paul's letters) and examines how the community used scriptural interpretation to make sense of these unexpected events and the delay in the Kingdom's coming. Ultimately, this interpretive process led to the development of the belief in a two-stage messianic appearance, with Jesus' initial resurrection paving the way for his future, definitive return and the establishment of the Kingdom.
The Initial Crushing of Hopes and the Unexpected Resurrection: Jesus' immediate followers went to Jerusalem expecting a miracle related to the coming of God's Kingdom and the revelation of the messiah, potentially Jesus himself. Their hopes were severely disappointed and crushed by Jesus' death on a Roman cross. Following this traumatic event, the source notes that some among this demoralized group experienced an unexpected miracle: they saw Jesus again, risen from the dead. This experience was contrary to their initial expectations for the Passover visit to Jerusalem.
Resolving Cognitive Dissonance through Resurrection Appearances: The source poses the question of why Jesus' movement survived his death when others led by charismatic figures of the time did not. It links this survival to the postmortem visitations. Jesus had successfully forged his followers into a group intensely committed to him and his prophecy of the coming Kingdom. His death was unexpected, traumatic, and bewildering, creating intense cognitive dissonance: if Jesus was dead, how could his prophecy be true? If his prophecy was true, how could he be dead? The experience of seeing the risen Jesus resolved this internal conflict and reinforced their belief in his prophecy, particularly that the Kingdom was indeed at hand.
Divergent Accounts of Post-Crucifixion Appearances in New Testament Sources: The source highlights that the New Testament sources—the four gospels (Mark, Matthew, Luke, John), Acts, and Paul's letters—offer differing answers to fundamental questions about the post-crucifixion visions of Jesus. These questions include who saw him, when and where these visions occurred, what the witnesses saw or thought they saw, and what they took the visions to mean. The source explicitly states that there is no unitary tradition that binds these accounts together.
Variations in Witnesses, Locations, and Timing of Appearances: The sources vary significantly regarding who witnessed the risen Jesus, the sequence of appearances, and where they took place. Mark, the earliest narrative, ends with an empty tomb account and mentions a promise of appearance in Galilee, but depicts the women saying nothing to anyone. Matthew describes appearances to two women and later the eleven disciples in Galilee. Luke describes appearances to a larger group of women at the tomb (who see angels but not Jesus), Peter in Jerusalem, two apostles on the road to Emmaus, and then the eleven in Jerusalem, emphasizing physical presence and concluding with a bodily ascension from the Mount of Olives. John describes appearances to Mary Magdalene alone at the tomb, then to the disciples (without Thomas) in Jerusalem, and later to a smaller group in Galilee. Paul, in 1 Corinthians 15, provides a different list of witnesses: Peter, the twelve, over 500 brethren, James, all the apostles, and finally himself, without specifying locations in that passage, although implying Damascus elsewhere. While accounts vary widely, all assert that appearances began very shortly after the crucifixion, within days, often specifying "on the third day" or "after three days," a time period possibly influenced by scripture. The duration of appearances also varies: John's timeframe seems indefinite or over a week, Acts specifies forty days, and Paul's vision occurred years later.
Contrasting Views on the Nature of the Risen Body: The source discusses different interpretations of the physical nature of the resurrected Jesus. The Gospels of Luke and John emphasize the physicality and continuity of the risen body with Jesus' body before death, noting the visibility and tangibility of his wounds. However, they also suggest special qualities, such as Luke's Jesus not being immediately recognizable and appearing abruptly, and John's Jesus not being initially recognized by Mary Magdalene and being able to pass through closed doors. Paul's account contrasts sharply, arguing that the raised body is precisely not "flesh and blood" but a "spiritual body," incorruptible and different from perishable earthly flesh. The source notes the later difficulty this Pauline view caused for the development of orthodox doctrine regarding raised flesh.
Interpreting the Resurrection within Apocalyptic Eschatology: The original community interpreted their experiences of seeing the risen Jesus within the framework of late Second Temple Jewish apocalyptic eschatology, which anticipated a range of miraculous events marking the Endtimes and the establishment of God's Kingdom. These events included the general resurrection of the dead, the ingathering of the tribes of Israel, and the messiah's victory. For Jesus' followers, the resurrection validated Jesus' message and timetable, signaling that the Kingdom was indeed at hand. The source points out that this interpretation diverged from tradition in two crucial ways: Jesus was raised alone (not as part of a communal resurrection), and normal time continued despite his resurrection.
Relocation and Communal Life in Jerusalem: Despite the trauma of the crucifixion and the potential danger, the original followers relocated and regrouped in Jerusalem after the resurrection appearances. This decision is presented as making practical sense only within their apocalyptic conviction that the Kingdom was coming soon and that Endtime events would unfold from Jerusalem, considered God's holy mountain and the focal point for the ingathering of Israel and the nations. Acts describes this community gathering daily, praying, sharing meals, communalizing property, and worshipping in the temple courts. This communal organization is compared to that of the Essenes at Qumran, suggesting a similar apocalyptic commitment and sensibility. Paul's letters from decades later support the idea that the Jerusalem community, referred to as "the poor" or "the holy ones," was still supported by communal charity collected from Diaspora assemblies, indicating a lack of settled livelihoods and an expectation of a short timeframe.
The Cessation of Appearances and the Delay of the Kingdom: The source notes that the resurrection appearances eventually stopped, while the expected Endtime did not arrive. This "failed Parousia" (Second Coming) of the risen Jesus, coupled with the persistent non-arrival of the Kingdom, forced the community to reassess the meaning of the appearances. The movement did not end, however, due to factors like the continuation of charismatic experiences (healing, prophesying, speaking in tongues), an intensified turn to Jewish scriptures for interpretation, the refinement of ideas about Jesus as the messiah, and the formulation of a mission plan.
Scriptural Interpretation and the Development of the Two-Stage Messiah Concept: Facing the delay of the Kingdom, the community turned to Jewish scriptures to make sense of their circumstances. Through creative interpretation, they reframed Jesus' death and resurrection as events that happened "according to the scriptures," part of a divine plan, thereby lessening cognitive dissonance and giving these events positive significance. This scriptural engagement also refined ideas about Jesus fulfilling the role of the messiah, leading to the novel concept of a crucified and raised messiah. This, in turn, evolved into the idea of a two-stage messianic manifestation: a first coming in weakness (culminating in the cross and initial resurrection appearances) and a second coming, the Parousia, in glory, at which the Kingdom would be fully established. Jesus' resurrection became understood as the "first fruits," indicating the future general resurrection and the imminent End.
Shift from a Time-Indicator to a Status-Indicator: Over time, especially as the years passed and the Kingdom's delay became apparent, the interpretation of Jesus' resurrection shifted. Initially, it primarily served as a time-indicator for the immediate Endtime ("Jesus is raised, therefore the Kingdom must be coming soon!"). With the delay, the interpretation evolved to primarily indicate Jesus' identity and status ("Jesus is raised, therefore, he must be the messiah!"). This shift allowed for the community to continue its mission during the extended period between the resurrection and the anticipated Second Coming, moving from passive waiting to active proclamation, framed by the expectation of Jesus' eventual, public, and definitive return.