Source: “Custodians of Truth : The Continuance of Rex Deus”, by Tim Wallace-Murphy and Marilyn Hopkins, Red Wheel/Weiser, LLC, 2005.
From Exodus to Babylonian Exile To Rebuilding the Temple.wav
This historical overview podcast examines the development of ancient Israelite religion and society, beginning with a critical look at the Exodus narrative, noting that modern scholarship often views it with skepticism due to its late authorship and lack of archaeological support, suggesting it may be more mythological than historical fact. It traces the emergence of a distinct Israelite identity not through a unified conquest but through a gradual process within Canaanite society, initially marked by polytheistic practices and the worship of multiple deities alongside Yahweh. The text highlights the pivotal role of the Babylonian Exile in shaping post-exilic Judaism, explaining how the loss of the temple and land led to the codification of the Torah and the establishment of a strictly monotheistic and legalistic religion centered on piety, study, and the synagogue. Finally, it touches upon later historical periods like the Maccabean Revolt and the rise of the Hasmonean dynasty, emphasizing how religious divisions and external pressures continued to influence the evolution of Judaism.
Topic 1 The Exodus and Wilderness Wanderings The account of the Exodus of the Jews from Egypt and their subsequent forty years in the wilderness is presented in the Book of Exodus. Scriptural commentators and historians hold mixed views on this narrative. Some devoted followers view it as the inerrant word of God or straight history. However, modern historians tend to be cautious or skeptical, noting the Book of Exodus was written over seven centuries after the purported events under political circumstances that may have significantly altered the account. Some leading Israeli scholars suggest the Exodus is pure mythology, and one historian described the Egyptian sojourn as possibly fabricated in later centuries for ideological or social purposes. Despite doubts about the historical accuracy of the story, the spiritual truth behind it is recognized, particularly the idea that during the desert wandering under Moses, the Israelites were unified into a nation, learned God's secret name, and received the Torah or Law. The narrative is seen as containing indications of Egyptian and gnostic roots of Judaism, with only a vague historical framework verified by archaeology.
Topic 2 Symbolism of Pillars The source discusses the use of pillar symbolism, tracing its origins to Egyptian influences and its transformation within mystical Judaism. Specifically mentioned is the symbolism of freestanding twin pillars uniting mankind and God, seen at the entrance to the temple at Karnak. This symbolism is dramatically used to highlight the sacred nature of the Exodus, where God led the people by day in a pillar of cloud and by night in a pillar of fire, which never departed from them. This vivid imagery was repeated to signify God's presence in the tabernacle; when Moses entered the tent, the pillar of cloud would descend, and God would speak with him face to face. Later biblical texts record God speaking from a pillar of cloud, which was interpreted as the fount of revelation or the seat of Wisdom. This interpretation stressed the importance of the wisdom tradition, even suggesting Wisdom as a separate divine entity or God's helper in creation, described as having set up her seven pillars. This concept of Wisdom as God's consort posed problems for the idea of early Judaism being truly monotheistic. However, when Judaic beliefs were later codified, the understanding of Wisdom evolved to become an attribute of God, similar to the concept of God's "glory."
Topic 3 The Conquest and Settlement in Canaan The biblical account of the invasion and settlement of the Promised Land begins with Joshua and the battle of Jericho. Early archaeological excavations seemed to confirm the biblical story of the fall of Jericho's walls. However, later excavations disclosed that the ruins dated to a much earlier period, precluding their association with Joshua's conquest. Despite extensive excavation in modern Israel, archaeologists have found little evidence of destruction in Canaanite city sites that could be attributed to conquest by the people of Israel at the time of their occupation. This lack of archaeological evidence for a military conquest is widely accepted by most scholars. The scribes who wrote the Book of Joshua even admit that Joshua's "conquest" was only partial. The modern scholarly consensus is that Israel emerged peacefully and gradually from within Canaanite society, possibly through a process of infiltration or reinforcement of affiliated tribes. The existence of a nation or tribe called Israel by 1207 B.C.E. is confirmed by the Mernephtah Stele, which records its conquest. The source suggests there were three main waves of early Hebrew settlement in Canaan: the first led by Abraham, the second by Jacob (Israel), and the third being the arrival of Moses' people after the Exodus. This mixed multitude is said to have amalgamated with and eventually dominated the existing Semitic tribes, uniting around their belief in Yahweh and eventually being called the people of Israel. The Bible is understood as indicating that the ancient Israelites were a confederation of various ethnic groups primarily bound by their loyalty to Yahweh.
Topic 4 Religious Beliefs and Polytheism in Early Israel The source challenges the notion of early Israelite religion as strictly monotheistic as understood today. While Yahweh, the God of Moses, was described as their one true God, many Israelites believed in the existence of other gods and continued to worship them, similar to their Egyptian ancestors. This religious self-criticism in the Bible is seen as likely based on truth, aligning with archaeological evidence of Canaanite beliefs. Prior to the Babylonian exile (597-539 B.C.E.), when the Scriptures began to take written form, the issue of whether Israelites were exclusively monotheistic is described as confused. Evidence suggests polytheistic practices were common. Early references to God include El Elyon or El, a generic West Semitic name also used for the Canaanite god Baal. Israelites participated in fertility rites for Ba'al, worshipped Syrian deities, and venerated Asherah, the goddess of fertility, who was sometimes described as El's consort or even the wife of Yahweh as he assimilated aspects of El. An altar to Asherah was even erected in the Temple by King Manasseh. Further evidence comes from documents regarding the pre-Exodus Jewish temple at Elephantine, which show a cult worshipping several gods besides Yahweh and describing Yahweh as having much in common with other Middle Eastern gods. The fact that the Elephantine Jews wrote to Judea and Samaria after their temple's destruction implies they did not believe their worship was considered deviant and suggests Jerusalem was not yet perceived as the central religious authority. The source notes that the Pentateuch was unknown to the Jews of Elephantine in the 5th century B.C.E.
Topic 5 The Lord God of Israel and the Temple The source discusses the evolving understanding of Yahweh and the significance of Solomon's Temple. Prior to Solomon's Temple, Yahweh is primarily described as choosing a people, not as a creator god. After being ritually enthroned on Mount Zion, Yahweh took on aspects of the worship of Canaanite gods like Baal or El Elyon. When King David made Jerusalem his capital and brought the Ark of the Covenant there, he appointed Zadok, a Jebusite likely a priest in the tradition of El Elyon, as high priest, alongside Abiathar. This joint appointment had a lasting impact, as later high priests had to demonstrate descent from Zadok. Solomon's Temple itself incorporated design elements from Egyptian, Canaanite, and Syrian models, featuring carved cherubim, palms, flowers, and notably, two freestanding pillars called Joachin and Boaz before the entrance, reflecting the ancient Egyptian wisdom tradition. It also contained a bronze basin supported by bulls representing Yam, the primal sea of Canaanite myth, and two pillars symbolizing the fertility of Asherah. During Solomon's reign, worship of Yahweh continued in traditional high places inherited from the Canaanites, often involving pagan ceremonies. Solomon himself is noted for venerating pagan deities and building high places for gods like Chemosh and Moelch, and allowing the worship of Astarte. Despite building the first temple to Yahweh, Solomon is not presented as a strict monotheist. The biblical accounts of the temple's building in Kings and Chronicles show discrepancies, particularly regarding the role of priests, which some scholars attribute to later post-exilic ecclesiastical organization being anachronistically projected back onto David and Solomon's time to legitimize later priestly structures.
Topic 6 The Writing of the Old Testament and the Documentary Hypothesis The source details the process by which the Old Testament took its present form. It notes that the scriptural accounts of David and Solomon were written four centuries or more after the events they describe. The Old Testament began to take its present form during the Babylonian Exile and continued to be compiled for several centuries afterward. By this time, Judaism had developed into a rigidly monotheistic system centered on a priestly caste and a legalistic religion based on the Law. The scribes, however, included accounts of Israel's history of backsliding and polytheistic influences, while also stressing the importance of sacred wisdom, particularly in the account of King Solomon. The wisdom of Solomon is explicitly related to the wisdom of Egypt in the Bible and further elaborated in the apocryphal book The Wisdom of Solomon. Modern biblical scholarship has reached a broad consensus on the manner in which the Scriptures were written, suggesting contributions from earlier sources and traditions that can be identified by their terminology for God or their specific emphasis. These sources were blended together by scribes in Babylon and later, creating a compelling narrative style based on Jewish history and mythology, although sometimes resulting in contradictions. The modern scholarly documentary hypothesis identifies at least four major sources: J (Yahweh/Jehovah), E (Elohim), D (Deuteronomy), and P (Priestly source). This hypothesis, or variations of it, is widely accepted by most scholars, Christians, and non-Orthodox Jews, challenging the traditional view that the Pentateuch was written by Moses. The Hebrew Bible, completed by the 2nd century B.C.E., consists of the Torah, the Neviim (Prophets), and the Ketuvim (Sayings), written mainly in Hebrew, with parts in Aramaic.
Topic 7 The Babylonian Exile and the Transformation of Judaism The Babylonian Exile, beginning in 597 B.C.E. with the fall of Jerusalem and the deportation of citizens, is described as a traumatic and pivotal event in Jewish history. This was part of a series of enforced deportations between 734 and 581 B.C.E., leading to the start of the Diaspora, where the majority of Jews would live outside the Promised Land. Without a temple or a country, the exiles feared extinction through assimilation. In response, they turned to God, focusing on the Torah and their other sacred writings. Around these spiritual possessions, they built a new form of Judaism, detached from territorial limitations and political loyalties, founded on piety, learning, religion, and study. This adversity was transformed into an advantage, changing the Jewish religion and ensuring the survival of the people. During the exile, priests and scribes created the literary and spiritual masterpiece of the Old Testament, drawing on laws, historical records, Deuteronomy (discovered before the fall of Jerusalem), oral traditions, sayings of prophets, and a passionate sense of purpose that projected their vision forward and retrospectively into the newly shaped accounts of their past. This process continued what had begun earlier, shaping the stories of figures like Saul, David, Solomon, Elijah, and Joshua, who had lived before the Scriptures were codified. Their guidance is seen as rooted in the mystical and initiatory heritage from their Egyptian origins, now incorporated into the emerging written Scriptures.
Topic 8 Priestly Influence, Sacred Zones, and the Temple The source highlights the significant influence of the priestly class, particularly during the compilation of the Scriptures in exile. The new writings emphasized the role and importance of the hereditary priestly caste, especially those from the twenty-four priestly teams who served in the Temple. Descent from Zadok was reinforced as an absolute requirement for the high priesthood in Jerusalem. The priests also interpreted the travails of the exile as a consequence of the people's repeated failure to keep the covenant with God, viewing the conquest and exile as divine punishment for past sins, not the shortcomings of leaders. This explanation allowed Jews to maintain self-respect while encouraging repentance and a return to righteousness to regain God's blessing. The concept of sacred zones is evident in prophetic visions and priestly writings. Ezekiel envisioned a special area around the city and temple for the spiritual elite (king, high priests, Levites), distinct from the rest of the land and the world (Goyim). This radical separation mirrored God's separation from creation. In exile, the Jews were encouraged to make themselves a sacred zone to live with God in their midst, avoiding fraternization with non-Jews and false gods. The Priestly source (P), particularly in Leviticus and Numbers, rewrote Israel's history from this perspective, describing the desert wanderings with graded zones of holiness centered on the tabernacle (Holy of Holies), where only the high priest could enter. For P, Israel became a people because God chose to dwell among them, emphasizing God's presence as being as important as the Law.
Topic 9 The Evolution of Judaism, Torah, and Synagogues The Babylonian Exile spurred significant developments in Jewish religious practice and identity. With the destruction of the Jerusalem Temple, the central cultic shrine was gone. The need for a new focal point led to the development and use of the synagogue, tracing back to community meetings in exile. Without the temple, ritual sacrifice ceased, and the focus shifted to prayer and reading the new religious texts. This period marked the birth of Judaism as a new religion. Yahweh finally absorbed his rivals in the religious imagination of Israel, and the lure of paganism diminished. The new Judaism blended legalistic, prophetic, and initiatory traditions, emphasizing command and moral commitment. Worship changed from the noisy, joyful practices of the First Temple period to a quieter, more sober style reflecting the sense of national sin and brokenness, exemplified by the festival of Yom Kippur. A pivotal development was the accessibility of the Torah, no longer the exclusive domain of priests. It became the ultimate source for all aspects of Jewish life—religious, moral, political, social, economic, and domestic. This "enthronement" of the Torah prevented Judaism from becoming solely a priestly religion focused on ritual, transforming it into one encompassing all life. While this laid the groundwork for an ideal theocratic state, the concept of the nation was now linked to God's rule extending to the Diaspora, not solely to territory. The development of the Scriptures and their interpretation led to an increase in scribes, priests, and commentators, fostering debates, arguments, and ultimately, the rise of various sects and divisions within Judaism.
Topic 10 The Post-Exilic Period, Hellenistic Rule, and the Maccabean Revolt Following the Babylonian Exile, under Persian rule, Jewish religious developments proceeded with relative autonomy, as the Persian Empire was tolerant of religious beliefs. This continued when Alexander the Great conquered the region, granting Judea considerable autonomy under the high priest, although with heavy taxation. Problems intensified under the Selucid king Antiochus IV, who doubled taxes and, in 175 B.C.E., deposed the last true Zadokite high priest, appointing his own nominee. This led to religious division, with the deposed high priest's son building a rival temple in Egypt and more zealous Zadokite priests forming a sect near Qumran, focused on strict purity and Torah observance. Antiochus IV then attempted to eradicate Judaism entirely, banning religious practices like Sabbath observance, circumcision, and festivals under penalty of death. The Torah was banned, possession made a capital offense, and the Temple was desecrated by being dedicated to Zeus, with pagan sacrifices and practices introduced. This oppression triggered the Maccabean Revolt led by the priest Mathias and later his son Judas Maccabeus. The revolt fought against both Hellenized Jews and the Greeks. The Maccabeans were victorious, purifying and rededicating the Temple (celebrated as Hanukkah). In 143 B.C.E., Simon Maccabeus was appointed hereditary high priest and ethnarch, marking the beginning of the Hasmonean Era, where Israel again had priest-kings and the country expanded significantly, reaching a size comparable to Solomon's legendary kingdom. However, internecine strife within the Hasmonean dynasty led to civil war and an appeal to Rome for intervention, eventually resulting in the rule of Herod the Great, described as a "friend of Rome."