Source: Peter Schäfer, “Two Gods in Heaven: Jewish Concepts of God in Antiquity”, Princeton University Press.
This podcast challenges the common assumption that Judaism is the classic religion of monotheism, particularly in the post-exilic period and beyond. The author argues that historical evidence, from biblical literature to early Jewish mysticism, suggests a more complex picture, where the idea of two divine authorities in heaven was a significant concept within Judaism itself. This dynamic view contrasts with outdated linear models of religious development and positions early Judaism and Christianity as sister religions engaging in a lively exchange, including competing ideas about a second divine figure alongside the creator God. The book aims to explore this binitarian thought throughout ancient Judaism, focusing on key texts and figures that reveal the presence of two gods or powers in the Jewish heavenly realm, often despite rabbinic efforts to maintain a strict monotheism.
Critique of the Traditional Narrative of Jewish Monotheism: The source challenges the popular assumption that Judaism is the classic religion of monotheism, asserting it from its inception or at a specific historical point. The traditional view, often summarized by the Shema (Deuteronomy 6:4), posits Judaism as purely monotheistic, with Christianity subsequently adopting this but diluting it with concepts like incarnation and the Trinity. This narrative often portrays Judaism as being forced into a limited, abstract concept of God, setting it apart from the Christian message and suggesting a lack of genuine dialogue between the two. The source states that this "ideal picture" does not hold up to historical review, and that historical reality is far more complex and dynamic.
Modern Understanding and Historical Models of Monotheism: The term "monotheism" itself is a modern coinage, first appearing in 1660. Historically, it played a central role in two now-obsolete models of religious development. The evolutionary model saw monotheism as the peak of religious progress, starting from "primitive" forms and becoming increasingly "pure." The decadence model, conversely, viewed monotheism as the original, ideal form that later degenerated into polytheism. Religious history today favors a dynamic model that avoids value judgments and acknowledges various configurations and combinations between "monotheism" and "polytheism" across different times and places. This dynamic view suggests that Jewish monotheism was not a static achievement but a concept that developed and was contested over time.
Evidence Challenging Strict Monotheism in Ancient Israel: The source presents evidence from the Hebrew Bible period that challenges the notion of a uniformly strict monotheism. Bible scholars today describe a multifaceted view of God in ancient Israel, where various gods stood side by side and competed. Israel's God, YHWH, had to assert himself against other deities, particularly those from the Ugaritic and Canaanite pantheon like El and Ba'al. The attempt by biblical authors to subsume competing gods into YHWH was not always successful, as shown by prophetic confrontations with Ba'al worship. Furthermore, archaeological evidence, such as inscriptions from Kuntillet Ajrud dating to the Kingdom of Judah, indicates that YHWH was associated with a consort, Asherah, a well-known Canaanite goddess whose cult image was worshipped even in the Jerusalem Temple.
Ideas Challenging Strict Monotheism in Second Temple Judaism (Precursors to Binitarianism): The conflict between strict YHWH-only theology and religious traditions involving multiple divine figures continued into the Second Temple period. The source points to plural language used by God in the creation account (Genesis 1:26), which some scholars interpret as implying a "monotheistic confession" but one made despite the use of a plural, suggesting a concept of God that was anything but uncontested. While the "angel of the Lord" tradition might be older, later literature from the postexilic period and Second Temple Judaism (canonical and noncanonical) also indicates a departure from a purely singular concept of God. This period saw the development of an angelology, which might function as a buffer between a transcendent God and humanity, but more significantly, it reflects the re-emergence of the idea of not just one, but at least two divine figures or powers in the Jewish heaven.
The Relationship Between Early Christianity and Second Temple Judaism: Early Christianity is understood by the source as having adopted and built upon the concept of monotheism that had developed in postexilic and Second Temple Judaism, rather than a "pure" or perfect monotheism. The New Testament did not invent basic Christological ideas such as the elevation of Jesus as first-born, incarnate God, Son of God, Son of Man, or Messiah. These premises are seen as rooted in Second Temple Judaism, regardless of their specifically Christian character. This suggests that the ideas that led to the Christian concepts of divine duality (Father and Son) and later the Trinity were already present or developing within the Jewish religious landscape from which Christianity emerged.
The Concept of "Two Powers in Heaven" or Binitarianism: The source introduces the rabbinic phrase "shetei rashuyyot," meaning "two powers in heaven," which explicitly implies the existence of two divine authorities side by side. This concept is distinct from dualistic ideas of a good god versus an evil god; instead, it describes two gods who rule together in varying degrees of correlation. Scholarship uses the term "binitarian" to describe this juxtaposition of two powers or gods, drawing an analogy to the Christian term "trinitarian." Earlier research by Herford and Segal studied this rabbinic concept, often viewing it primarily as a polemic against perceived "heretic sects" like Christians or Gnostics breaking away from an "orthodox" Judaism. More recent scholarship, influenced by figures like Daniel Boyarin and the author, seeks a more differentiated view, suggesting that the rabbis were also arguing with opponents within their own movement and that binitarian traditions were integral to ancient Judaism itself, not just an external heresy.
Binitarian Traditions in Second Temple Judaism: Key Figures and Texts: The first part of the book focuses on this period. The Son of Man figure in the Book of Daniel is presented as a key precursor, potentially interpreted as the angel Michael, representing Israel in heaven with quasi-godlike status. Wisdom literature also shows two competing strands: wisdom as a created daughter of God sent to earth, or wisdom as a Platonic archetype imparting divine strength. Qumran texts are discussed for their further development of divinization concepts, depicting a human elevated to heaven and enthroned as a divine-messianic figure (self-glorification hymn) or interpreting the Son of Man as Son of God/Most High for eschatological redemption (Apocryphon of Daniel). Pseudepigraphal texts like the Similitudes of Enoch equate the Son of Man with Enoch, a human elevated to heaven as an eschatological judge. The Fourth Book of Ezra equates the Son of Man with the Messiah who will conquer nations and be revealed as the Son of God. Philo's concept of the Logos as God's creative power, characterized as the firstborn and highest angel, and also the archetypal human, is seen as particularly close to the idea of two gods in heaven, especially given its later influence on Christian thought.
Binitarian Traditions in Rabbinic Judaism: Continuation and Debate: The second part of the book examines how these ideas continued and were debated within Rabbinic Judaism. While the Son of Man tradition is largely irrelevant in Palestinian rabbinic sources, where there is little evidence of a second deity alongside the creator God, it is different in Babylonian Judaism. The Babylonian Talmud features discussions identifying the Messiah-King David with the Son of Man from Daniel, enthroned next to God. Rabbi Aqiva is associated with this idea, although he is immediately contradicted by colleagues. This establishes a pattern seen throughout the period: the emergence of binitarian ideas in certain circles in Babylonia and their strong refutation and polemics against them within mainstream rabbinic society. The perceived Christian usurpation of the Jewish Son of Man concept is suggested as a reason for its suppression in Christianizing Palestine.
9. Binitarian Traditions in Early Jewish Mysticism: Early Jewish mysticism, particularly the Hekhalot literature, is presented as being more open to binitarian ideas than mainstream rabbinic Judaism. The David Apocalypse within Hekhalot literature accepts the elevation and enthronement of David as Messiah-King next to God without polemics. The traditions surrounding the patriarch Enoch also show a contrast: Palestinian rabbinic sources tend to view Enoch negatively, even denying his ascension, possibly due to contemporary Christian interpretations. However, early Jewish mysticism treats Enoch differently. The Third Book of Enoch transforms the human Enoch into the highest angel Metatron, granting him the title "Younger" or "Lesser God," seen as a pinnacle of binitarian traditions in late antiquity. The story of Elisha ben Avuyah seeing Metatron on a divine throne and concluding "two powers" is interpreted as heresy, highlighting the controversial nature of these ideas within some circles, but the Hekhalot literature's tone is noted as more reserved compared to Talmudic accounts.