Source: “Paul: The Pagan’s Apostle”, by Paula Fredriksen, 2017.
This podcast unpacks the complex, multifaceted nature of the ancient texts that comprise the Bible, challenging the modern perception of it as a single, unified book. It emphasizes that these writings evolved over centuries, containing diverse voices and literary forms, and were initially circulated as separate scrolls with fluid textual variations. The text then delves into the evolving understanding of God, highlighting the concept of "henotheism" in antiquity, where the existence of multiple gods was acknowledged even while a single deity was worshipped exclusively. Finally, it traces the development of "apocalyptic eschatology" in Jewish thought, focusing on how prophetic traditions grappled with suffering and exile, ultimately broadening the scope of promised redemption to include not only the return of Israel but also the eventual inclusion and transformation of the nations.
Topic 1: The Composite Nature of the Bible The sources emphasize that what is commonly referred to as "the Bible" is not a single, unified book, but rather a vast collection of individual writings, akin to a library. These texts were composed over more than a millennium and are themselves complex documents, containing diverse voices, literary genres, religious and political viewpoints, and local oral traditions from countless authors, editors, and scribes. During Paul's time, there was no concept of a "Bible" as we understand it today; instead, individual texts or small collections like Psalms or Proverbs were kept as separate scrolls. Furthermore, these scriptural texts were not static; for instance, the Qumran library alone preserves over 1,000 textual variations across 21 Isaiah manuscripts. There were also non-canonical but authoritative books for different Jewish communities that updated or expanded existing biblical stories, such as Jubilees (which retells Genesis and Exodus) or traditions associated with Enoch. Significant differences also existed between Hebrew texts and their Greek versions from the Hellenistic period. These aspects highlight the fluid nature of ancient textuality, far from the modern ideas of a fixed "book" or "canon."
Topic 2: Apocalyptic Hope and Eschatology Apocalyptic hope is presented as a crucial framework for understanding the missions of Jesus and Paul. This genre, termed "apocalyptic eschatology" in academic discourse, emerged in the late Second Temple period (roughly 200 B.C.E. to 200 C.E.). It provided a sense of unity to the diverse scriptures by supporting various "master narratives" of Israel's coming redemption. This form of narrative aimed to bridge the perceived gap between the difficult realities of lived experience and the promises, covenants, and hopes found in Jewish scriptures. Apocalyptic eschatology inherently seeks to correct history, promising a swift resolution to moral injustices, where good will ultimately triumph over evil, peace over war, and life over death. It envisions a post-historical, idealized future where earthly kingdoms give way to the Kingdom of God, a theme amplified from older prophetic paradigms of Exile and Return.
Topic 3: The Complex Nature of God and Ancient Monotheism The sources delve into the multifaceted portrayal of God in the Bible. Initially, Genesis presents God as a solitary and universal deity, creating the cosmos. However, this universal God is also uniquely "Jewish" through the establishment of the Sabbath, linking Him to the people of Israel. This concept of "divine ethnicity"—where gods are associated with the peoples who worship them—is noted as common in antiquity. What distinguished the Jewish God was the insistence by Jews that their particular God was also the universal, highest God, a claim affirmed by Paul. The texts also reveal the presence of numerous other supernatural personalities and "other gods" (elohim) in ancient Israelite scriptures, such as the "sons of God," angels, and figures like Satan, all of whom are subordinates to Israel's God. More significantly, ancient Israelite scriptures also acknowledge the existence of other powerful, independent "gods" whom Israel's God battles, judges, takes captive, or punishes. This observation challenges modern notions of "monotheism," leading to the concept of "henotheism"—the worship of one god without denying the existence of others. The sources argue that in antiquity, "monotheism" was effectively a form of "polytheism," meaning that even those fiercely loyal to their chief deity still acknowledged the existence and power of other divine entities. The distinction between "gods" and "demons" is noted as a later development.
Topic 4: The Origin and Scope of Humanity and the Nations The narrative shifts from the initial creation in Genesis 1 to a different, possibly older, account in Genesis 2 that portrays human history as a cycle of disobedience and punishment. Following the fall of humanity and escalating wickedness culminating in a worldwide flood, God preserves only Noah's family. From Noah's three sons—Shem, Ham, and Japhet—all humanity begins anew, traditionally comprising seventy different "nations" (goyim or ethnē), as detailed in the "Table of Nations" in Genesis 10. This concept of all humanity descending from Noah establishes a foundational biblical idea: the totality of the human family. The Table of Nations categorizes these groups by kinship, language, and land. This idea of the plenum of nations descended from Noah recurs throughout scripture, including prophetic texts like Isaiah, later Second Temple writings, and is alluded to by Paul in Romans. It implies that all human families are connected through Noah and his covenant with God.
Topic 5: The Election of Israel and the Mosaic Covenant Unlike the universal creation, Israel's existence begins with an unexplained divine choice, manifested over time through a promise to Abram. This promise includes land (the Land of Israel), progeny (a "great nation"), and universal blessing for all earth's families. God later formalizes this with a covenant with Abraham, reiterating the promise of land and foretelling Abraham and Sarah's role as progenitors of "many nations." A crucial sign of this covenant is the circumcision of all males on the eighth day, designated as an "everlasting covenant." This covenant is then affirmed and repeated through Isaac and Jacob (renamed Israel), extending to the eponymous fathers of Israel's twelve tribes. The subsequent books of the Torah (Exodus through Deuteronomy) detail God's shaping of Abraham's descendants into the promised great nation. This involves their liberation from Egypt, God's contest against Egyptian gods, and the revelation of His Law (Torah) at Sinai. This legislation, covering cultic, ethical, agricultural, sacrificial, and social aspects, serves to set Israel apart from other peoples. Central to this covenant are God's demands for exclusive and aniconic worship, forbidding the worship of other gods or the making of images, a significant departure from surrounding cultures where polytheism was common. This exclusivity and the covenant terms underline Israel's unique relationship with its God.
Topic 6: The Significance of Davidic Kingship and the Temple in Jerusalem Upon settling in Canaan, Israel eventually transitioned from a loose confederacy to a monarchy, with David emerging as a pivotal figure. David unified the tribes, defeated enemies, consolidated political and military power, and centralized traditional worship in Jerusalem. Biblical traditions, while wary of kingship, ultimately endorsed David's dynasty, affirming God's promise of eternal dominion to his line. This promise imbued Davidic kings with a special form of divine sonship, where God would be a father to them, without implying literal divine descent or that the king was a god in his own right, unlike other ancient rulers. Concurrently, the sanctity of God's "house"—the Temple in Jerusalem built by David's son Solomon—became a central aspect of localized divinity. Although Israel's God was understood as the universal Lord, He was believed to "live" particularly in Jerusalem within His dwelling place. Jerusalem thus became the pilgrimage center for Israel's annual holidays, and the laws of sacrifice were transposed to this regal setting. The concepts of David's eternal throne and God's perpetually abiding Temple became integral to Israel's understanding of its covenant with God.
Topic 7: The Trauma and Redemptive Power of Exile and Return Despite the promises of eternal dominion for David's line and God's temple, historical events shattered these expectations. The kingdom split after Solomon's death, leading to the fall of the Northern Kingdom to Assyria and the subsequent deportation of its people. Later, Judah also fell to Babylon in 586 B.C.E., resulting in the destruction of the Temple, the devastation of Jerusalem, and the exile of its people. This experience of exile profoundly challenged Israelite identity, seemingly undermining core ideas of covenant, promise, peoplehood, land, Jerusalem, temple, and the Davidic messiah, and questioning God's power and constancy. However, prophetic traditions reinterpreted these events, insisting that Israel's God was not defeated but was using the nations to discipline and punish His own people. Prophets voiced God's wrath and promised severe suffering for Israel's errant behavior. Yet, alongside these dire admonitions, prophets also offered profound affirmations of God's eternal bond with Israel, His steadfast love, and the certainty of His promises. They framed suffering as punishment and a token of election, meant to bring Israel back to God. This moral dialectic of sin/punishment and repentance/forgiveness meant that returning to God would lead to redemption and a return to the Land, with prophecies speaking of a "circumcision of the heart" and God's law being written on the heart, symbolizing a deeper, lasting commitment.
Topic 8: The Enlargement of Redemption in Prophetic Visions As prophetic traditions developed, the concept of redemption expanded significantly. Initially understood as a spatial or locative return from slavery (like the Egyptian paradigm) or exile (the Babylonian paradigm), redemption grew to encompass moral and eschatological dimensions. It included redemption from sin, divine anger, want, war, and even death itself. Crucially, the scope of this redemption also enlarged. What began as an affirmation of Israel's particular relationship with their God—including patriarchal promises, the Law, covenants, the Davidic dynasty, and the Temple—expanded to assertions of absolute divine prerogative. Prophetic visions began to include the miraculous reassembly of all twelve tribes of Israel, not just a remnant, and their gathering in Jerusalem. Even more remarkably, these visions foresaw all seventy nations (goyim) also assembling in Jerusalem, feasting with Israel, and acknowledging Israel's God. Prophets envisioned God wiping away tears, swallowing up death forever, and raising the dead, signifying a universal resurrection. These later prophecies projected Israel's experience of Exile and Return onto the entire cosmos, implying that Israel's future redemption would ultimately redeem all nations, culminating in a post-historical Kingdom of God.
Topic 9: Diverse Speculations on the Role of Gentiles in the End-Time Within late Second Temple apocalyptic literature, there was a wide range of varied speculations regarding the role of non-Jews (gentiles) in the coming Kingdom of God. These traditions were not rigid doctrines but rather multivocal speculations keyed to biblical themes. Some texts envisioned the nations' total destruction, defeat, or subjugation to Israel, with foreign monarchs bowing down and gentile cities being devastated or repopulated by Israelites. These visions often included God destroying the nations and their idols. Conversely, other traditions presented a positive extreme where nations would be partners in Israel's redemption. This included visions of nations streaming to Jerusalem to worship the God of Jacob alongside Israel, gentiles accompanying exiles returning to Jerusalem, and all peoples abandoning their idols to worship God in truth. Strikingly, some prophecies even suggested that certain gentiles would serve as priests and Levites in the eschatological temple, a radical departure from the hereditary nature of these roles within Israel. This diversity underscores that no single paradigm controlled the genre, and even texts like Isaiah and Paul's letters could express both extremes of divine wrath upon idolaters and their eventual reform and redemption.
Topic 10: The Emergence of Gentile Inclusion in Early Christianity The sources highlight an intriguing aspect of early Christianity: Jesus of Nazareth, despite his focus on the impending Kingdom of God, does not appear to have actively engaged with or left specific instructions regarding the integration of gentiles into his mission. Evidence suggests his mission was primarily confined to fellow Jews, and he seems to have assumed that gentiles would enter God's Kingdom as a divinely initiated, final event. However, after Jesus's death, his followers, encountering active gentile interest, readily incorporated them into the movement. This inclusion of ex-pagan gentiles was seen as a natural extension of the gospel message. Within a few years of Jesus's execution, the gospel had reached regions like Damascus and beyond, involving pagans. Paul's mission, in particular, centered on gentiles, and the unexpected success of this Jewish message among non-Jews led to significant debates and conflicts within the nascent movement. For some gentile Christians by the mid-second century, the turning of the nations to Israel's God through the preaching of the gospel became the paramount proof that Jesus was indeed the messiah of a new, non-Jewish Israel, marking a significant shift in accent and emphasis for what would eventually become Christianity.