Source: “Rosslyn: The Story Behind Rosslyn Chapel” By Andrew Sinclair, 2005
King Arthur the Grail and Knights of Black and White.wav
This podcast explores the complex historical and legendary roots of King Arthur and the Holy Grail, suggesting a blend of actual Celtic resistance against invaders with later myths and religious movements. It argues that the early Arthur was a highly mobile cavalry commander fighting the Anglo-Saxons, echoing older Celtic resistance to Rome and influenced by Eastern military tactics, rather than the armored knights of later romance. Furthermore, the text connects the Grail legend to the Celtic Christian "heresy" of Pelagianism, which emphasized a direct connection to God through good deeds, contrasting with the Roman Church's authority and leading to themes of personal spiritual quests outside of priestly intervention, particularly as seen in the Cathar movement and later Grail romances like Chrétien de Troyes' work. Finally, it touches upon the role of troubadours and Norman influence in shaping the Arthurian legend, using Geoffrey of Monmouth's History to create a propaganda piece that linked Norman rulers to Celtic heroes and justified their conquests, all while subtly challenging or reinterpreting Roman Catholic doctrine regarding relics and salvation.
Topic 1 This topic explores the historical basis and early accounts of King Arthur. He is described as a fabled cavalry commander who united the Clyde kingdom of Dyfnwal with command over the West Country and Wales in the early 6th century, where he was also known as Emrys and had a Celtic ancestry. Arthur is credited with winning major battles, including the great battle of Mount Badon against the invading English in the south and later battles fought in the Cheviot hills north of Hadrian's Wall. According to the Annales Cambriae, he is claimed to have brought Christianity to the north around 573 at the battle of Arthuret. His tactics, which involved horsemen using light weapons like javelins, short swords, curved bows, and small shields, charging against massed infantry, were commemorated in the Welsh poem, 'The Elegy for Geraint'. These tactics were likely inherited from a Romano-British leader named Ambrosius Aurelianus, who was brave on foot but even braver on horseback. Early descriptions of Arthur's forces contrast with later medieval legends, noting the absence of heavy armour on early battle sites, yielding mainly swords and spears. His defeat came at Camlann, where he and Medraut (Mordred) perished, coinciding with a plague in Britain and Ireland. He was successful in defense against Anglo-Saxon incursions, leading to a description of him as supreme at slaughter in the late 6th-century Gododdin. By the 7th century, four British royal families had named a son Arthur, indicating his emergence as a significant figure, the "Matter of Britain."
Topic 2 This topic details the Celtic heresy of Pelagianism and its confrontation with the Roman Church. The Papacy often viewed Britain as a center of heresy, particularly taking issue with the Pelagian idea of a direct approach to God without the Church's intercession. Pelagius and Coelestius, two Celtic monks in the early 5th century, were banished from Rome for preaching that humans could achieve perfection through their deeds, denying the concept of original sin championed by St Augustine. This doctrine implied that priests, whose role included absolving sins, were unnecessary, as believers could reach heaven solely through their actions on Earth. Pelagius wrote that "Everything good, and everything evil... is not born with us, but done by us." This teaching was condemned by the Council of Ephesos and is presented as a forerunner to later movements that challenged papal authority, including Calvinism and contributing to the first crusade of Europeans against Europeans, which targeted the Cathars. The Celtic heresy of Pelagius thus represented a significant denial of Roman authority and was intertwined with earlier British revolts against Roman Caesars led by cavalry commanders like Maximus and Constantinus. Germanus, later Saint Germain, was sent to Wales twice in the early 5th century specifically to suppress this heresy, which was supported by the ruler Vortigern.
Topic 3 This topic focuses on the Celtic religious renaissance of the 6th and 7th centuries, highlighting its independence from the authority of Rome. This movement was based on connecting via the Atlantic sea routes and stood in opposition to the Mediterranean-centric authority of Rome. The faith was spread by holy pilgrims and hermits, who are seen as precursors to the apostles in later Grail romances. These figures preached resistance against Nordic, Germanic, and later Arabic invasions, demanding a political hero, such as Arthur, to defend their people and independent faith. A different Byzantine rite is described as having passed from the Mediterranean along old trade routes to these Celtic civilizations, influencing their religious practices. Drawing from Greek learning, Irish monasteries became prominent centers of learning, sending missionaries, pilgrim saints, and hermits to Wales, the Isle of Man, and Scotland. Early Christian gravestones in the Ogham script are found in these areas, potentially linked to Druidic origins. Figures like St Petroc and St Samson are mentioned for their missionary work to England, Brittany, Spain, and even Iceland. The roles of Irish Saints Columba and Columbanus are highlighted as bearers of Greek and Gnostic doctrines regarding divine light. Columba's saga includes accounts of blinding light and pillars of fire associated with his presence and death. An anchorite and monastic movement of Irish monks, the Célidé or Culdees, established early Christian and eastern Greek practices in Scotland, independent of Rome, preceding the Reformation. Letters from St Columbanus to Popes Gregory the Great and Boniface the Fourth assert the limited authority of Rome and claim that the Celts received pure and early Christianity directly from the disciples, receiving nothing outside evangelical and apostolical doctrine.
Topic 4 This topic discusses the Anglo-Saxon invasion and the resistance faced by native Britons. Vortigern, resisting Rome, invited raiding Saxons to defend against incursions by the Irish in Wales and the Picts in the north. He ceded land and tribute, leading to further migration of Angles and Jutes from the Continent. These new settlers turned against the natives, devastating the late Roman urban civilization in southeastern England. The destruction and moral decline resulting from this invasion were chronicled by the Celtic monk Gildas, who wrote of "the general destruction of everything good and the general growth of everything evil throughout the land." The defense against this Anglo-Saxon incursion involved fighting on a shifting frontier stretching from Devon along the Welsh borders to the Firth of Forth, alongside separate battles on the western shores against the Irish pushing into Pembroke and Argyll. King Arthur's twelve victories are seen in this context, likely involving cavalry actions against foot-soldiers, using tactics inherited from Ambrosius Aurelianus. Despite the success of resistance figures like Arthur in repelling invaders for a time, the Anglo-Saxons eventually confirmed the supremacy of the Roman rite in England by the mid-7th century, notably at the Synod of Whitby, following the missionary efforts sent by Pope Gregory the Great.
Topic 5 This topic explores the evolution of warfare tactics described in the sources, contrasting early Celtic/Romano-British methods with Viking and Norman approaches. In the time of King Arthur, warfare involved highly mobile horsemen using light weapons such as javelins, short swords, curved bows, and small shields, charging against massed infantry. This contrasts with the medieval legends of armoured knights with lances, and archaeological evidence from early battle sites supports the use of lighter gear. Viking invaders, prominent for centuries, were armed with broadswords, battle-axes, shields, spears, and knives, wearing leather jerkins sometimes reinforced with mail and conical/ridged helmets. Their rapid-fire small bows were effective, learned from Steppe cavalry. The Battle of Stamford Bridge in 1066, where English King Harold defeated Norwegian King Hardrada III, demonstrated the effectiveness of English archery against a Norse shield wall, despite the strength of Viking melee weapons. However, shortly after at the Battle of Hastings, Norman heavy cavalry proved decisive. King Harold's forces, adopting Viking tactics with a shield wall of house carls armed with battle-axes and maces, initially repelled Norman archers and spearmen. Repeated cavalry charges also failed against the shield wall and powerful axes. Ultimately, a Norman withdrawal led to the English breaking formation, and subsequent Norman charges, combined with archery that pierced the shield wall, resulted in Harold's defeat and the superiority of heavy cavalry in the pursuits of the Middle Ages. William the Conqueror established a successful military and governmental strategy based on professional mailed knights, fortifications, and the feudal system, which dominated warfare until the advent of gunpowder.
Topic 6 This topic highlights the crucial role of Celtic bards, minstrels, and later troubadours in preserving and spreading legends, particularly those surrounding King Arthur. In ages where most people were illiterate and information was primarily transmitted orally, these figures served as entertainers and reporters, often blurring the lines between fact and fancy. Like Homer in the classical age, bards sang of heroic exploits and helped establish the legitimacy of ruling families by connecting them to legendary or divine ancestry. Geoffrey of Monmouth is seen as fulfilling a similar role for the Norman dynasty, creating a sourcebook for the Arthurian legend that intertwined Norman ancestry with Celtic myths. After the Dark Ages, Celtic minstrels traveled throughout the Atlantic areas, disseminating the legends of Arthur and his companions. Notable among them was the Welshman Bleheris, described as a "fabulous translator" of Arthurian legend into Norman French and known for his knowledge of the histories of British rulers and all the Grail stories. The term "troubadour" derived from a word meaning "to compose, to seek and to find," linking their art to quests, including the search for the Grail. Their work was influenced by various traditions, including Celtic bards, classical legends, and oriental singers from Spain. These wandering performers, using works like Geoffrey of Monmouth's history and Wace of Jersey's translation as cue sheets, were instrumental in spreading the fame of Arthur and his exploits from Britain across the Continent by word of mouth, long before the advent of printing.
Topic 7 This topic focuses on Geoffrey of Monmouth and his foundational work, The History of the Kings of Britain, and its impact on the Arthurian legend. Written around 1135, this text became the primary sourcebook for King Arthur and the "Matter of Britain," though later chroniclers, like William of Malmesbury, accused Geoffrey of inventing much of his narrative "from an excessive love of lying, or for the sake of pleasing the Britons." Despite this criticism, William acknowledged that Arthur's long resistance and restoration of Celtic morale warranted his commemoration in histories. Geoffrey's work is presented as propaganda, particularly for the Norman Empire. By creating a lineage from the mythological Brutus of Troy to the British kings, including Arthur, he aimed to provide legitimacy for the Norman conquest, suggesting they were the true heirs of the Celts who had resisted the Germanic tribes and Rome. He fabricated an extensive European empire for King Arthur, comparable to Charlemagne's, portraying Arthur conquering lands up to Norway and the Rhine and defeating a Roman tribune in Gaul. He also added elements like the wizard Merlin and the sword Excalibur (Caliburn) and linked Norman figures, such as Sir Belvedere and Sir Kay, to Arthur's court, bestowing legitimacy upon them. Geoffrey claimed his deeds were based on ancient memories and traditions found in a lost book, a common practice among later chroniclers of Grail romances. Wace of Jersey's subsequent translation and expansion of Geoffrey's work into French verse, Roman de Brut, dedicated to Eleanor of Aquitaine, further popularized the legend and added elements like the Round Table. Geoffrey's narrative served a political purpose, framing the Norman conquest as a victory shared with the Celts against their common Anglo-Saxon enemy, despite the Normans' own Viking origins and history of conquest and pillaging.
Topic 8 This topic examines the creation of the Grail romance, particularly by Chrétien de Troyes, and its complex influences and symbolism. Chrétien de Troyes, born around 1135 in Champagne, is credited with creating the story of the Grail in his unfinished romance, Perceval, or The Story of the Grail. He synthesized various ancient and contemporary tales, along with his own imagination, to forge a narrative for the chivalry of his time that justified a search for both glory and God. Champagne was a cultural crossroads, where Eastern beliefs encountered Christianity and where the "Matter of Britain" (Arthur) met the "Matter of France" (Charlemagne). Chrétien was influenced by his patrons, Countess Marie of Champagne (daughter of Eleanor of Aquitaine) and later Count Philip of Alsace. The romance was dedicated to Count Philip, who had brought back the Holy Blood of Christ relic from a crusade, influencing Chrétien to incorporate Christian symbols into Celtic Grail myths. Chrétien claimed to have versified a lost book loaned by his patron. His Perceval introduces a simple Welsh youth who becomes a knight and seeks the Grail Castle. Key symbols in the Grail procession seen by Perceval included a white lance with a bleeding tip, a golden Grail set with gems, and a silver platter carried by young women. These symbols combined Celtic/Nordic elements (bleeding lance, cornucopia, cauldron of plenty) with Christian associations (Holy Lance of Longinus, communion chalice, platter from the Last Supper/head of John the Baptist). The Grail itself, though meaning "dish" or "bowl," appeared as a vessel providing inexhaustible food, similar to the Welsh dysgl, but also containing the host or Body of Christ for the Fisher King.
Topic 9 This topic delves into the conflict and tension between the independent spiritual path suggested by Celtic beliefs and the Grail romances, and the established authority of the Roman Catholic Church. The Papacy historically viewed Britain as a home of heresy, beginning with Pelagianism, which challenged the need for priestly intercession by emphasizing salvation through good deeds. This idea of a direct approach to God persisted in Celtic Christianity, which developed independently of Rome via Atlantic routes and Byzantine influences. The Célidé monks in Scotland, for instance, established Christian practices independent of Rome before the Reformation. St Columbanus explicitly challenged the Pope's authority and asserted the purity of Irish Christianity derived directly from the apostles. The fundamental Scottish "heresy" of salvation through good works is presented as an inspiration for the Knights on the Grail quest, who sought direct contact with the light of God and the Holy Spirit through their virtue and deeds, minimizing the need for priestly absolution. The Grail romances, particularly Chrétien's, featured wandering holy men advising knights, mirroring the role of Celtic preachers spreading their independent faith. The depiction of the Grail being carried by a young woman and not a male priest, and containing the blessed bread of early Christian communities or Cathar heretics rather than the Catholic communion wafer, was considered anathema by the Church. The absence of a priest, altar, or cross inside the Grail Castle in Perceval further underscores this deviation. The Grail vision emphasized personal responsibility for one's soul and direct revelation through trial and test, bypassing the Church as mediator. Later Welsh tales, likely influenced by the Church's suspicion, portrayed Arthur negatively as a trickster or despotic ruler. The Roman Church saw the Grail epics as an "irritant" that diminished its role and was willing to persecute those, like the Cathars, who sought a direct approach to the divine.
Topic 10 This topic focuses on the Knights Templar, their origins, role, connections, and fate. Created in the 12th century by St Bernard, the Military Order of the Temple of Solomon was sanctified to protect pilgrims visiting holy places in Jerusalem, where they were based. They adopted a way of life modeled on early Christian saints and potentially the questing knights of the Round Table, living ascetically and serving God. Their strongholds and chapels are suggested as models for Grail castles. They were closely linked to the Cistercian Order (white monks) and were granted papal blessing. Initially a force of hundreds of horsemen protecting pilgrims, they became a permanent standing army in Palestine. After the loss of Jerusalem to Saladin, their main purpose diminished, and they evolved into merchants, bankers, and administrators. The Templars were significantly influenced by Eastern warrior sects like the Isma'ili Assassins and assimilated Shi'ite, Sufi, and Kabbalistic doctrines, alongside early Christianity, which emphasized the corruption of the flesh and an ascension to the spiritual, similar to the Grail quest. They were closely connected to regions like Champagne, Provence, and the Langue d'Oc, which also supported the Cathar faith. Many Cathar knights who escaped the Albigensian Crusade were received into the Templar Order, which itself was permeated with oriental influences. The Templars' association with Jerusalem included guarding the pilgrim route and having their base at the Dome of the Rock, which Christian pilgrims mistook for the Temple of Solomon and believed contained relics like manna and the Holy Blood. The loss of the True Cross, which they carried into battle, also impacted them. Ultimately, the Templars were proscribed as heretics, facing a fate foreshadowed by the Albigensian Crusade against the Cathars, who were also labeled heretics by Rome for seeking direct contact with God. Their legacy, symbolized by gravestones bearing the broadsword, Rosy Cross, and Grail, is presented as enduring despite their official dissolution.