Source: “Paul: The Pagan’s Apostle”, by Paula Fredriksen, 2017.
This podcast explores the complex relationship between Paul, the Law, and Gentile inclusion within the early Christ movement. It argues that Paul's seeming inconsistencies regarding Jewish law are best understood through the lens of his mission to Gentiles, emphasizing that he opposed gentile circumcision and certain forms of "Judaizing" for non-Jews, yet still affirmed Jewish Law for Jews and encouraged a specific kind of Torah observance for spirit-filled Gentiles. The text highlights how early Christian expectations of an imminent "End-time" influenced varied interpretations of Jewish practices, particularly concerning the role of Gentiles and their relationship to Abraham's covenant and the fulfillment of prophecy without necessarily becoming fully Jewish. Ultimately, it suggests that Paul's strong rhetoric against some practices was not a rejection of Judaism itself, but a strategic effort to define how Gentiles could participate in God's plan through Christ, while maintaining a distinct ethnic identity.
Topic 1: The early acceptance of gentiles into the Christ movement and the subsequent circumcision controversy. From its earliest days, the mission of the gospel welcomed sympathetic non-Jews into its communities, especially those in the Diaspora, without requiring them to undergo circumcision. This practice aligned with existing customs in diaspora synagogues, which often accommodated "Judaizing pagans" within the Jewish community. The inclusion of these non-Jews was initially viewed as coherent with the movement's apocalyptic belief that pagans, once they renounced false gods, would enter God's Kingdom as "eschatological gentiles," linking their inclusion to Christ's return and the impending redemption of Israel. However, a significant controversy emerged later, around 49 C.E., as recounted in Galatians 2. Paul traveled to Jerusalem to present his gospel to the nations to prominent leaders like Peter, James, and John. A key point of contention was whether Paul's gentile companion, Titus, needed to be circumcised. The Jerusalem leaders, who were Galilean Jews and perhaps less accustomed to the mixed demographics of diaspora synagogues, might have been uneasy about a gentile in a leadership role, potentially seeing it as a liability for the movement's appeal to Israel. While they considered the idea, it was ultimately dropped. Later, other Christ-following Jews, whom Paul refers to as "false brothers," actively urged circumcision, though it is unclear if this was for Titus specifically or a general criterion for gentile participation. Despite their insistence, the "pillars" in Jerusalem again rejected the idea, instead agreeing to a division of labor: Paul and Barnabas would focus on the nations, while Peter, James, and John would focus on the Jewish mission. The issue of Titus's circumcision was seemingly resolved.
Topic 2: Paul's strong opposition to gentile proselyte circumcision. Paul consistently and vehemently opposed the practice of gentile proselyte circumcision. He believed that if gentiles were circumcised, it would negate the benefit of Christ. In his letter to the Galatians, he argues that receiving circumcision means being "severed from Christ." This strong stance is highlighted by his rhetorical identification with his gentile audience, asserting that the demand for circumcision would bring them into "bondage." In 1 Corinthians, Paul explicitly states that "Circumcision is nothing and foreskin is nothing: what matters is keeping God's commandments," implying that this applies specifically to gentiles, not to Jews. He did not object to Jews circumcising their own sons, as he himself was circumcised on the eighth day and considered Jewish circumcision to be an abiding privilege of Israel. His argument was that circumcision was of no value for adult male gentiles because covenantal circumcision, in his view, was inherently tied to the eighth day of a male child's life, a position supported by a minority interpretation of Genesis 17.14 in the Greek text. Thus, an adult gentile attempting circumcision would, in Paul's perspective, transgress the "law of circumcision" itself because they were beyond the designated age, effectively rendering their circumcision as uncircumcision. For Paul, the only way for gentiles to share in Abraham's blessing was through Christ and the spirit, not through the flesh or circumcision.
Topic 3: The complex and seemingly contradictory nature of Paul's statements regarding the Law. Paul's epistles present a varied and often seemingly inconsistent view of the Law. On one hand, he uses purely negative terms, describing the Law as a curse, a form of enslavement, and a medium of sin, flesh, and death. On the other hand, he also presents the Law in a strongly positive light, identifying it as one of Israel's God-given privileges. He asserts that the Law is holy, just, and good, and that faithfulness upholds it. He even claims that he himself was "blameless" with respect to "righteousness in the Law." This apparent inconsistency has historically led to interpretations that minimize Paul's positive statements, portraying him as advocating for a "Law-free" Christianity that supersedes Judaism. However, a closer examination reveals that Paul's negative statements about the Law are primarily directed at gentiles, not at Jews. His critique is not against Jewish Torah observance but against non-Pauline understandings of gentile "Judaizing." He aims to dissuade Christ-following pagans from attempting to live by the Law's precepts in any way other than "in Christ." For gentiles, without Christ, the Law could expose their sinfulness without providing the means to overcome it, thus functioning as a "curse" by highlighting their moral inability. Conversely, for gentiles "in Christ," empowered by the Spirit, the Law's demands become achievable, particularly its ethical precepts. Therefore, Paul's view is not simply "Law-free" but rather that gentiles are enabled by the Spirit through Christ to fulfill the Law, making "Law" and "faithfulness" complementary rather than opposing.
Topic 4: Paul's understanding and rhetorical use of the term "Judaizing." The term "Judaizing" in antiquity typically referred to an outsider's adoption of Jewish customs, and it was an elastic term. Paul, for his rhetorical purposes, stretched its meaning considerably. For example, in the incident at Antioch, when Peter withdrew from eating with gentiles after "certain men" from James arrived, Paul accused Peter of "compelling" pagan Christ-followers "to Judaize." Paul's meaning here was that Peter's withdrawal pressured these gentiles to attend community meals solely in Jewish households, thereby effectively forcing them to conform to Jewish practices beyond what Paul deemed necessary or appropriate. Despite his condemnation of certain forms of "Judaizing" (specifically, gentile circumcision and segregation at meals), Paul's own gospel to gentiles was, paradoxically, a radical form of "Judaizing" itself. He demanded three key things from Christ-following pagans: primarily, the complete abandonment of worship to their traditional "lower gods" and an exclusive commitment to Israel's God. Second, they were not to "switch" ethnicities by "becoming" Jews (e.g., through circumcision). Third, having received the holy spirit, these gentiles were to live as "holy" or "separated-out" people, adhering to standards of community behavior precisely defined by the Law, such as loving their neighbor, which fulfills "the whole Law," and honoring specific commandments from the second table of the Decalogue (e.g., no murder, no adultery, no theft). This demanding commitment to Israel's God and adoption of Jewish ethical standards meant that Paul's gentiles, by contemporary definition, were indeed "Judaizing."
Topic 5: The role of apocalyptic expectations and the delay of the Kingdom in shaping early Christ movement practices. The early Christ movement was profoundly shaped by fervent apocalyptic expectations, believing in the imminent End of the Age and Christ's glorious return. However, as the Kingdom continued to tarry and initial prophecies of its swift arrival went unfulfilled, a sense of "delay" set in. This delay created a theological and practical conundrum for the communities. The traditional prophetic scenario, which had already been reinterpreted by the crucifixion and resurrection of a messiah, seemed to go awry as the Kingdom did not come as expected, the dead were not raised, and Israel was not gathered. This existential challenge led to various responses and reinterpretations within the movement. Some Jewish Christ-followers, like the "false brethren" mentioned by Paul, began to insist on gentiles formally affiliating with Israel through circumcision. Their rationale might have been a perceived causal link between the Kingdom's delay and Israel's unreadiness, or perhaps they saw the increasing prominence of gentiles as hindering Israel's acceptance of the gospel. They might have believed that bringing gentiles fully into the covenant via circumcision could hasten the End or ensure the gospel's spread by making its spokesmen unequivocally Jewish. This evolving situation, driven by the prolonged wait for the Kingdom, prompted new questions about gentile inclusion and the requirements for participation in the messianic community, leading to the "sudden and unambiguous" appearance of Jewish circumcising missions to gentiles around mid-century.
Topic 6: The speculative motivations behind Paul's opponents, the "circumcisers." Paul's letters, particularly Galatians, portray his opponents – the "circumcisers" – as direct threats to his mission, though their specific identities and coordinated efforts are not fully known. The source speculates on several possible motivations for these other apostles who advocated for gentile proselyte circumcision, especially in the context of the delayed apocalyptic expectations. One possible motivation was the concern for Israel's response to the gospel. These apostles might have viewed the increasing prominence of gentiles in the movement as a factor in Israel's resistance. Insisting on circumcision for leading gentiles, like Titus, might have been seen as a way to ensure the gospel's spokesmen were Jews, making the movement more palatable to other Jews and prioritizing the mission to Israel. Another theory relates to social protection and legitimacy. In the Greco-Roman world, Jewish identity, including circumcision, provided a recognized social and religious standing. If Christ-following pagans "became" Jews, they would gain a safer place within the larger religious ecosystem, potentially deflecting anger from human or divine pagans who might view their rejection of traditional gods as destabilizing. A more theological motivation suggests that some apostles literally sought "Israel" among the nations, believing that the "ten lost tribes" of the north, scattered among the gentiles, could be regathered. By calling for gentile circumcision as a condition for entry into the ekklesia, they might have believed they were achieving the reconstitution of the "plenum of Israel," a necessary step for the Kingdom to finally come. Paul’s intense focus on Abraham in Galatians suggests he was arguing against his competitors' specific interpretation of Abraham, implying they used Abraham's circumcision as a model for gentile entry into the covenant.
Topic 7: Competing interpretations of Abraham's role in the debate over circumcision. The figure of Abraham played a central role in the arguments both for and against gentile circumcision. Paul's opponents, the "circumcisers," likely appealed to Abraham's story in Genesis 17, where God requires circumcision of Abraham and all males of his family as a sign of the covenant, specifically stating that Isaac was conceived and born after Abraham's circumcision and was himself circumcised on the eighth day. These opponents could argue that Abraham's story began with his renunciation of idol worship (similar to Paul's gentiles) but culminated in God's command for circumcision, suggesting that Paul's gentiles, by following Abraham's example, should also receive circumcision to fully enter the covenant and the redemption promised to Abraham's descendants. This would effectively turn these many nations into "Jews" to sweep them into redemption. Paul, in response, highlighted different aspects of Abraham's narrative, primarily focusing on Genesis 15. He emphasized Abraham's pistis (fidelity to or confidence in God's promise), stating that Abraham was "righteoused" through this pistis, not through his circumcision. Paul argued that his Galatian gentiles, having already received the Spirit, were likewise "righteoused" through his work. He contended that the sperma (seed) God promised to Abraham was Christ himself, not Abraham's numerous descendants. Therefore, gentile inclusion in Israel's redemption was promised through Christ centuries before Sinai, and it is through Christ and their own pistis that gentiles become sons of Abraham and sons of God, inheriting the Kingdom as children of the promise, much like Isaac.
Topic 8: The reinterpretation of key Pauline terms: pistis (faithfulness/steadfastness) and dikaiosyne (justice/righteousness). Modern English translations of Paul's Greek terms pistis and dikaiosyne are often shaped by later theological developments, leading to a focus on individual "faith" and forensic "justification." However, returning to their mid-first-century context illuminates a different nuance. Pistis, often translated as "faith" or "belief," in antiquity connoted "steadfastness," "conviction," or "loyalty." When Paul uses it, especially in phrases like "obedience of pistis," he means a steadfast commitment to the gospel, turning from idols to worship Israel's God. It is not merely an internal psychological state but an active adherence and loyalty. For instance, "salvation is nearer to us now than it was when we first became convinced" captures Paul's meaning of episteisamen. Dikaiosyne, translated as "justification" or "righteousness," also has a communal rather than solely individualistic or forensic connotation for Paul. It connects strongly with the Law's second table, concerning an individual's behavior within a divinely mandated community context of social justice. When Paul states that pagans are "righteoused by pistis," he means that by their steadfast commitment to the good news, they are made "right by God toward God" and are simultaneously enabled by the Spirit to act "rightly toward each other." This "right-making" is a gift of God, allowing them to fulfill the Law, especially its second table, leading to peace with God and reconciliation. Thus, "justified by faith" means being enabled by steadfast commitment and trust in Christ to live justly within the community, fulfilling the Law's ethical demands.
Topic 9: Paul's specific requirements and expectations for gentile Christ-followers. Despite his opposition to gentile circumcision, Paul's mission was far from "Law-free" for gentiles; in fact, he required a radical form of "Judaizing" in specific areas. Paul demanded three primary things from Christ-following gentiles: First and foremost, they had to cease all latreia (worship) of other, "lower gods" (idols). They were to abandon their native deities and worship exclusively Israel's God, conforming their religious behavior precisely to the mandates of Jewish worship, specifically the first two of Sinai's Ten Commandments: no other gods and no idols. This was a more radical demand than many diaspora synagogues typically made of sympathetic pagans. Second, Paul insisted that gentiles not change their ethnic identity by "becoming" Jews through circumcision. They were to remain gentiles, albeit distinct ones—"eschatological gentiles" who had renounced idols. Paul maintained a clear distinction between "Israel" and "the nations" (gentiles) at a social and ethnic level, even while affirming their spiritual unity in Christ. Third, because they had received the Holy Spirit, these gentiles were expected to live as hagioi ("holy" or "separated-out") gentiles, adhering to high standards of community behavior. Paul explicitly cited the Law to guide their conduct, encouraging monogamous marriages, sexual self-discipline, community love, support for the poor, and honoring the commandments of the Law's second table (e.g., no adultery, no murder, no theft). He argued that loving one's neighbor fulfills "the whole Law." For Paul, how one worships (exclusive devotion to Israel's God) and how one behaves ethically are directly linked. Thus, Paul expected Christ-following gentiles to embody a specific kind of righteous living that was deeply rooted in Jewish ethical traditions.
Topic 10: The interpretation of the "I" in Romans 7 as representing a gentile's struggle to observe the Law without Christ. Romans 7, where Paul describes an individual's struggle with the Law—"The Law is holy, and the commandment is holy and just and good," yet "I do what I do not want"—is often seen as a psychological portrait of Paul's personal struggle or a universal human condition. However, the source proposes a different interpretation: the "I" in Romans 7 functions as a rhetorical device, prosopopoeia, where Paul impersonates a fictive character to illustrate his point. Given that Romans is primarily addressed to a gentile audience, this "I" is best understood as a non-Jewish individual who attempts to live according to Jewish ancestral customs—a "Judaizing gentile"—but struggles to do so without Christ. Paul, who elsewhere boasts of his own blamelessness with respect to Jewish law observance, would not be lamenting his own moral paralysis. Instead, his point is to highlight the futility of a gentile's efforts to fulfill the Law through self-effort alone, apart from Christ. For such a gentile, the Law, though good, only reveals their sinfulness and inability to act as they know they should. Paul argues that gentiles can fulfill Jewish law, and indeed should, but only when enabled by Christ or the Spirit. The lament, "Wretched man that I am! Who will deliver me from this body of death?" is therefore the cry of the gentile who attempts to Judaize without Christ, illustrating that true ability to live righteously comes solely through Christ and pistis (steadfast confidence/fidelity).