Source: “PAUL WITHIN JUDAISM: Restoring the First-Century Context to the Apostle”, Fortress Press 2016.
Paul Within Judaism The State Of Questions.wav
This podcast argues that the academic study of the New Testament, particularly Pauline studies, has been heavily influenced by Christian normative theology, leading to a distorted view of Paul within Judaism. Historically, biblical interpretation began as a theological endeavor, and despite Enlightenment attempts to introduce secular perspectives, scholarship continued to be shaped by a theological dichotomy between Judaism and Christianity. This resulted in a prevalent paradigm that depicted ancient Judaism as legalistic and inferior, making Paul's perceived opposition to it seem logical. However, recent "New Perspective" and "Radical Perspective" scholarship, notably E. P. Sanders's work, has challenged this by re-evaluating ancient Jewish texts, revealing a system of "covenantal nomism" that emphasizes grace and atonement, not just strict adherence to law. This revision suggests that the traditional anti-Jewish interpretation of Paul is a Christian caricature, and that placing Paul firmly within a first-century Jewish context necessitates a re-evaluation of early Christian identity and the historical relationship between Judaism and what later became "Christianity."
Topic 1 New Testament studies, particularly in the field of Pauline studies, have been significantly influenced by Christian normative theology. This pervasive influence means that scholarly commentary series often cater specifically to Christians, with stated goals like serving those in the ministry of the Word of God or upholding a commitment to Scripture as divine revelation and the power of the Christian gospel. This close link between New Testament studies and Christian theology presents a methodological problem, as it can lead to theological convictions shaping what is presented as historical reflection. For instance, the assumption of methodological atheism, which is common in most scientific research, is sometimes challenged by scholars who believe in the possibility of supernatural events and divine intervention in human affairs. This intertwining of theological interests with ostensibly historical work raises concerns about scholarly objectivity.
Topic 2 The deep connection between New Testament studies and normative Christian theology is a product of historical development. Biblical exegesis originated as a means to understand and explain divine revelation, a practice that can be traced back to Jewish biblical interpretation. This tradition was then adopted by the Christian church, finding new expressions in schools of interpretation like those in Alexandria and Antioch. While a rudimentary form of "scientific" biblical exegesis might be observed during the formation of the biblical canon, it wasn't until the Enlightenment that serious attempts were made to read biblical texts from non-theological standpoints. Despite these efforts to challenge theological influences, New Testament scholarship in the 19th century and beyond remained heavily shaped by a dominant Western cultural narrative: the theological dichotomy between Judaism and Christianity. This master narrative profoundly impacted several key subfields, including the study of the historical Jesus, the historical Paul, the emergence of Christianity, and the perceived separation between Judaism and Christianity.
Topic 3 A central and problematic theme identified in the sources is the pervasive theological dichotomy between Judaism and Christianity. This binary opposition, deeply ingrained in Western culture, has significantly influenced how early Christian history and key figures like Paul are understood. It has fostered the idea that Christianity fundamentally superseded Judaism, and that Christian grace replaced Jewish legalism. Such concepts are presented as core tenets of many Christian theologies, making resistance strong against any re-evaluation that challenges this divide. The argument is made that this theological interest should not dictate historical inquiry or the critical analysis of biblical and related historical evidence.
Topic 4 In recent decades, there has been a significant challenge to the traditional, theologically driven interpretations of history within New Testament studies, particularly concerning the relationship between Jesus, Paul, and Judaism. New, scientifically grounded perspectives, such as the "Third Quest of the historical Jesus," have emerged. This quest has shifted the understanding of Jesus from being in opposition to Judaism to being firmly placed within it, representing a historical view where Jesus is understood as an integral part of Judaism. A similar, though more strongly resisted, movement is now occurring in Pauline studies. This "Radical Perspective on Paul," or "Paul within Judaism," posits that traditional views on the relationship between Judaism and Christianity are historically inaccurate and require replacement. Proponents of this view are confident that Christianity can adapt to and survive the historical understanding of a "completely Jewish Paul," just as it adapted to a "completely Jewish Jesus," suggesting that religions are inherently capable of adapting to new understandings of their origins.
Topic 5 The development of anti-Jewish sentiment, or "anti-Jewishness," is traced back to early Christianity, where it served as an "ideological resource." Initially, Paul's negative statements about Jews, like those in 1 Thessalonians 2:14-15, are suggested to reflect internal Jewish disputes within a highly rhetorical context. However, by the early second century, more overtly critical statements from non-Jewish followers of Jesus appeared, signaling an emerging division based on ethnicity. For example, Ignatius of Antioch, around 115 CE, explicitly warned communities against continued Jewish influence, asserting that practicing Judaism was "utterly absurd" for those professing Jesus Christ. Later, around 160 CE, Melito of Sardis is credited with inventing the concept of deicide, the idea that "the Jews" were collectively responsible for the murder of Jesus, and even God himself. This evolved into an extensive literary genre known as the adversus Judaeos tradition, which solidified Christian anti-Jewish propaganda.
Topic 6 The emergence of Christian anti-Judaism is presented as not solely a theological phenomenon, but also a consequence of specific historical and socio-political circumstances. In the early decades of the Jesus movement, non-Jewish adherents were likely perceived as part of the Jewish community and enjoyed the exemptions from civic religious obligations granted to Jews in Greco-Roman city-states. This changed significantly after the Jewish War in 70 CE, when negative attitudes towards Jews became widespread in Roman society. In this altered environment, some non-Jewish followers of Jesus found it strategically advantageous to distance themselves from the Jewish Jesus movement. This involved the difficult task of forming new associations, which Rome viewed with suspicion. To gain legal recognition, they combined the venerated antiquity of Jewish traditions with a vigorous denial of Jewish identity, effectively creating "a form of Judaism stripped from Jews." Anti-Judaism thus became a crucial ideological tool for this emerging non-Jewish Christian movement to establish itself as a distinct and legally recognized religion. This political motivation for anti-Jewish propaganda eventually led to a theological problem for the church: explaining the continued existence of Judaism once divine grace was believed to have transferred to the "new and true Israel."
Topic 7 The theological problem posed by the continued existence of Judaism was addressed over centuries, with significant contributions from figures like Augustine and Martin Luther. Augustine, during Late Antiquity, developed a unique approach. Citing Psalm 59:11, he argued that Jews were still chosen by God but were dispersed globally to serve as eternal witnesses to the truth of Christian claims and should therefore be left alone. While this "doctrine of Jewish witness" may have inadvertently helped preserve Jewish lives, it also provided a new theological justification for contempt toward Jews and Judaism. During the Reformation, Martin Luther further intensified the gap between Judaism and Christianity. He returned to Augustine's original doctrine of justification by grace, but established sharper dialectical contrasts, particularly separating "faith" and "works" in matters of justification. For Luther, "works" were merely a consequence of "faith," and the attempt to please God through good deeds, as he perceived Jewish Torah observance, represented the sin of self-righteousness. From Luther's perspective, the traditional Jewish expression of faithfulness through Torah observance could only lead to condemnation. His interpretation of Paul, which asserted the "doctrine of justification by faith" as the correct understanding of the historical Paul, became an indisputable historical fact. Luther's views on Jews and Judaism, including recommendations for burning synagogues and confiscating Jewish writings, are well-documented in his pamphlet On the Jews and Their Lies.
Topic 8 In the 19th century, the theological distinction between Judaism and Christianity evolved into a scholarly paradigm, primarily within German academia. Ferdinand C. Baur of the Tübingen School, drawing on Hegel's idealistic philosophy, applied a dialectical process to early church history, identifying opposing forms of Jewish and gentile Christianity. Further solidifying this paradigm was Ferdinand Weber's 1880 study on ancient Judaism, which became a foundational text. Despite consulting original rabbinic texts, Weber's work was heavily influenced by the prevailing theological climate. He characterized the Jewish God as distant and Judaism as a legalistic religion where individuals sought righteousness through strict adherence to obsolete commandments. This negative reconstruction of ancient Judaism was then perpetuated by subsequent generations of scholars, including Wilhelm Bousset and Emil Schürer, cementing the idea of a stark contrast and inferiority of Judaism relative to Christianity well into the 20th century. This scholarly development was intertwined with broader societal changes, including the rise of secular, racially based anti-Semitism and nationalistic ambitions, which further marginalized European Jews and reinforced the perception of them as an alien group within Western culture.
Topic 9 A significant paradigm shift in Pauline studies occurred with E. P. Sanders's 1977 publication, Paul and Palestinian Judaism, complemented by the challenges posed by Krister Stendahl. Sanders meticulously re-examined Jewish texts from 200 BCE to 200 CE and identified a consistent religious pattern he termed "covenantal nomism." This concept revealed that pious Jews observed the Torah not to earn their righteousness, but to affirm their commitment to their covenantal relationship with the God of Israel. Contrary to the prevalent caricature, Sanders found that ancient Judaism embraced forgiveness, love, a personal God, and salvation within a covenantal framework. This groundbreaking revision exposed that much previous Pauline scholarship was based on a distorted, Christian caricature of Judaism. While Sanders concluded that Paul's religion was not characterized by covenantal nomism (justification for Paul meant salvation through Christ, not Torah observance), he argued Paul found nothing inherently wrong with the Torah itself; rather, God chose to save the world through Christ instead of the Torah. Building on Sanders's critique, James D. G. Dunn's "New Perspective on Paul," introduced in 1983, offered a nuanced interpretation. Dunn suggested that Paul's phrase "works of the law" referred specifically to Jewish identity markers (like food regulations, circumcision, and purity laws) that created barriers between Jews and non-Jews, rather than the entirety of the Torah or the concept of good deeds in general. This opened new avenues for understanding Paul within a covenantal framework, challenging the long-held view that Paul opposed the Torah.
Topic 10 Adopting a "Paul within Judaism" perspective profoundly reconfigures historical reconstructions of the early Jesus movement. This approach challenges the traditional assumption that early followers of Jesus, regardless of their ethnic background, merged into a "third race" called "Christians," implying a radical identity transformation where Jews ceased their Jewish practices. Instead, it suggests a more complex social reality: if Paul himself was a Torah-observant Jew, his critiques of the Torah in his letters, particularly Galatians and Romans, could not have been universal instructions for Jewish followers of Jesus. Given that Paul's authentic letters appear to be addressed primarily to non-Jews, a key interpretative possibility emerges: Paul might have only objected to non-Jews observing the Torah or converting to Judaism, while maintaining that Jewish followers of Jesus should continue their Torah observance. This scenario allows for the existence of diverse Jewish views on Gentile involvement in Torah, and acknowledges that many non-Jews were attracted to Judaism. From this perspective, the early Jesus movement is best understood as a Jewish faction, similar to the Pharisees or the Qumran community, rather than a distinct new religion. "Christianity" as we understand it did not yet exist, and Jewish identity was normative within the movement. The conflicts reflected in Paul's letters were likely centered on how to incorporate non-Jews into the eschatological people of God, and whether non-Jews should observe the Torah, rather than being about Jewish Torah observance for Jews. This perspective reveals a movement grappling with self-definition and its relationship with the nations, leading to the surprising conclusion that the continuity between Paul's religion and what later became the Christian church is not as straightforward as commonly assumed. The church eventually became a religion opposed to the practice of Judaism and devoid of Jewish identity, a significant divergence from Paul's own understanding of his faith as the perfection of Judaism.