Source: Richard Bauckham, The Climax of Prophecy: Studies on the Book of Revelation (London; New York: T&T Clark: A Continuum Imprint, 1993), 210–237.
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This podcast examines the Book of Revelation through the lens of Jewish holy war traditions, proposing that it functions as a "Christian War Scroll". While acknowledging the typical focus on God and Christ as the divine warriors, the podcast highlights Revelation's distinctive emphasis on human participation in this eschatological conflict, specifically through martyrdom and faithful witness. The speakers explore how Revelation reinterprets traditional militaristic messianic expectations by portraying the Messiah as a victorious sacrificial Lamb and his army as those who conquer not through physical violence but by following the Lamb's path to death.
1. The Concept of Eschatological Holy War in Jewish Tradition and its Transformation in Revelation. The sources explore the theme of holy war in Jewish eschatological expectation, highlighting a division into two forms: one where God alone or with heavenly armies achieves victory, and another where God's people actively participate in physical warfare against enemies. The tradition of divine victory without human assistance has precedents in Old Testament events like the Exodus and the deliverance of Jerusalem. Proto-apocalyptic and apocalyptic literature often emphasize God fighting alone or with a heavenly army, with Israel’s role being non-military, focusing on supernatural conflict or victory through judicial sentence. However, the sources note that early post-biblical Jewish literature surprisingly mentions a military Messiah but rarely his army, contrasting with the dominant Old Testament holy war tradition and Maccabean literature where God's people do fight. The War Scroll from Qumran (1QM) is highlighted as a key work providing detailed evidence of expectations for an eschatological holy war involving Israelite armies.
2. Revelation as a "Christian War Scroll" with Emphasis on Human Participation and Metaphorical Warfare. The suggestion is made to consider the book of Revelation as a "Christian War Scroll," not in genre, but in its emphasis on human participation in the eschatological holy war. Unlike other extant apocalypses of the period, Revelation highlights the involvement of Christians in this war. While 1QM is a 'rule' providing practical instructions for physical war, Revelation is an apocalypse combined with a letter addressed to churches, giving it an exhortatory function. The messages to the seven churches, with promises to "the one who conquers," invite readers to participate in the described eschatological war. Although holy war imagery permeates Revelation, the sources argue that John reinterprets these traditions, making the warfare metaphorical rather than literal. While lacking practical military details found in 1QM, Revelation shares a similar religious function in encouraging readers to engage in the conflict.
3. John's Reinterpretation of the Messiah as a Conquering Lamb and his Followers as a Messianic Army of Martyrs. The sources delve into key passages in Revelation (5:5-6, 7:2-14, 14:1-5) to show how John takes up and reinterprets specific traditions about the messianic war. Revelation 5:5 initially evokes the traditional image of the Messiah as a Jewish nationalistic military conqueror, using titles like "Lion of Judah" and "Root of David" drawn from Old Testament texts that were interpreted militaristically in some Jewish circles, including Qumran. However, John immediately reinterprets this image with the vision of the "slaughtered Lamb" (5:6), drawing on Suffering Servant and Passover themes. This juxtaposition forges a new symbol of conquest achieved through sacrificial death rather than military conflict. The Lamb's victory involves redeeming people from all nations, not just Israel. Consequently, the messianic army of the Lamb's followers is depicted as sharing in this same kind of victory, not through violence, but through faithful witness, even to the point of martyrdom.
4. The Identity and Role of the 144,000 and the Innumerable Multitude. The vision of the 144,000 sealed Israelites in Revelation 7:2-8 is presented as the Israelite army of the military Messiah, paralleling the traditional Lion image from chapter 5. Their numbering is like an Old Testament military census, highlighting their readiness for service. The list of tribes, especially Judah heading it, suggests a military context and possibly models from Numbers 1 and other texts describing Israelite armies. The inclusion of Levi, typically excluded from military censuses, aligns with 1QM where Levites play a crucial, non-combat role in holy war through prayers and trumpet calls. Dan is omitted, a common feature in lists of twelve tribes, and unlikely due to pre-Christian Antichrist traditions. This image of the 144,000 Israelite army is then contrasted with the vision of the innumerable multitude from all nations (7:9). This multitude fulfills God's promise to the patriarchs of innumerable descendants, reinterpreted by John in a distinctively Christian way to include Gentiles, effectively abolishing the national limits of God's people. While the numerous multitude first appears as a victorious army celebrating with symbols of victory and attributing deliverance to God and the Lamb, their identity as those who "come out of the great tribulation" and have "washed their robes white in the blood of the Lamb" reinterprets their victory. Drawing on Daniel 11-12 and comparing with 1QM, the "great tribulation" becomes a time of persecution, and their washing of robes in the Lamb's blood signifies their purification and victory through martyrdom, actively participating in Christ's sacrificial death and faithful witness. The 144,000 reappear in Revelation 14:1-5 on Mount Zion with the Lamb, representing the holy war to be fought and won by sacrificial death. Their qualifications (adult males, ritual purity like soldiers) are reinterpreted as moral purity and following the Lamb in his path to death, linking holy war, sacrifice, and moral probity.
5. Martyrdom as Active Participation and Victory in the Holy War against Evil. The sources argue that Revelation does not reject apocalyptic militarism entirely but reinterprets its language and concepts. Instead of physical violence, faithful witness to the point of death (martyrdom) becomes the means of participating in the holy war. This idea of martyrdom as active resistance and participation in the divine war against enemies had precedents in Jewish traditions concerning martyrs of the Antiochan persecution (like in 2 Maccabees, 4 Maccabees, Daniel, and Testament of Moses), where non-violent resistance gained prominence over military action. In these traditions, the martyrs' deaths could avert God's wrath from Israel and call vengeance upon persecutors. John draws on this tradition but emphasizes that the martyrs conquer not just by their death, but by their faithful witness to the truth, which prevails over deceit and functions as legal testimony against opponents while holding the possibility of winning others to truth. Martyrdom is presented not as passive suffering, but as an active engagement in the Lamb's war. From an earthly perspective, martyrs might seem defeated by the beast, but the apocalyptic visions reveal that from a heavenly perspective, they are the real victors, having taken the field against the beast and won through their suffering witness. This symbolic transformation encourages readers to resist compromise with pagan society and Rome by taking a firm stand through witness and suffering.
How does Jewish eschatological expectation relate to the concept of holy war?
Jewish eschatological expectation prominently features the theme of holy war, anticipating a final victory for the divine Warrior over His and His people's enemies. This tradition has two forms: one where God alone or with heavenly armies achieves victory (like the Exodus or the deliverance of Jerusalem), and another where God's people actively participate in physical warfare. While the former predominates in many ancient Jewish apocalypses, the latter is evident in the Maccabean literature and inspired resistance movements against Rome. The War Scroll from Qumran (1QM) provides significant evidence for this active participation in an eschatological holy war.
How does the Book of Revelation reinterpret the Jewish concept of a military Messiah?