Source: John J. Collins, The Apocalyptic Imagination: An Introduction to Jewish Apocalyptic Literature, Third Edition (Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2016), 1–5.
This podcast, an introduction to the apocalyptic genre, meticulously examines its definition, historical context, and literary characteristics. It begins by highlighting the scholarly ambivalence towards apocalyptic literature, noting its significance for early Christianity alongside a tendency to avoid its study. The text then delves into the complexities of defining "apocalyptic," distinguishing between it as a literary genre ("apocalypse"), a social ideology ("apocalypticism"), and a set of eschatological (end time) ideas. Furthermore, it traces the historical roots of the genre, exploring potential influences from Babylonian mantic wisdom and Persian eschatology, while ultimately emphasizing its emergence within the broader Hellenistic milieu. Finally, the source analyzes the literary features of apocalypses, contrasting source-critical approaches with the recognition of symbolic language and allusions, and considers the various social and compositional settings that may have shaped these writings.
The source explores the apocalyptic genre through several key lenses. Six major topics emerge as central to understanding this body of literature.
1. The text delves into the challenges and complexities of defining the apocalyptic genre. It highlights the historical ambivalence within modern scholarship towards apocalyptic literature, noting the contrasting views of its foundational importance for Christian theology and the perplexity it often evokes. This perplexity stems partly from the theological baggage associated with the term "apocalyptic," often linked to fanatical millenarian expectations, leading to prejudice within biblical scholarship. Furthermore, semantic confusion arises from the use of "apocalyptic" as a noun, suggesting a vaguely defined worldview rather than a specific literary form. The source emphasizes the importance of distinguishing between "apocalypse" as a literary type, "apocalypticism" as a social ideology, and "apocalyptic eschatology" as a set of ideas. The text then presents a working definition of an apocalypse as a genre of revelatory literature with a narrative framework, mediated by an otherworldly being to a human recipient, disclosing a transcendent reality that is both temporal (eschatological salvation) and spatial (a supernatural world). This definition highlights key formal and content elements shared by a corpus of texts traditionally considered apocalyptic, including visions, otherworldly journeys, angelic interpretation, pseudonymity, and a focus on both historical culmination and the supernatural realm.
2. The source examines apocalyptic eschatology. It notes that while some equate "apocalyptic" with the end of history, this view is primarily based on "historical" apocalypses like Daniel and does not encompass the full range of apocalyptic literature. A key characteristic of apocalyptic eschatology is its transcendent nature, envisioning retribution beyond the bounds of earthly history. This can manifest as the judgment of individuals after death, without necessarily involving a cosmic end. Even in historical apocalypses, retribution after death marks a significant departure from earlier prophetic eschatology. The text addresses the objection that neither individual judgment nor the end of history is unique to apocalypses, clarifying that the genre is defined by a distinctive combination of elements rather than a single theme. It also touches upon the use of the term "apocalyptic eschatology" in broader contexts, such as the Gospels and Pauline epistles, where eschatological allusions share affinities with the more elaborate scenarios found in the apocalypses themselves.
3. The source discusses apocalypticism and its relationship to the apocalyptic genre. It clarifies that apocalypticism, as a historical movement or a symbolic universe shaping a group's identity and interpretation of reality, is not simply identical to the content of apocalypses. Some apocalypses may not be products of organized movements, and conversely, some movements considered apocalyptic, like the Dead Sea Scrolls community and early Christianity, did not primarily produce apocalypses in the formal sense. The source suggests that a movement can be reasonably termed apocalyptic if it shares the conceptual framework of the genre, emphasizing supernatural revelation, the heavenly world, and eschatological judgment. It acknowledges that there can be different types of apocalyptic movements, mirroring the variety within the apocalyptic genre itself, including those with a more mystical and speculative orientation alongside those focused on historical and political upheaval.
4. The text delves into the nature of apocalyptic language. It contrasts two major scholarly approaches: that of R. H. Charles, who focused on historical allusions and theological doctrines, often emending texts to achieve perceived consistency, and that of Hermann Gunkel, who emphasized the recovery of traditional, especially mythological, materials embedded within the apocalypses. Gunkel's approach highlighted the symbolic and allusive character of apocalyptic imagery, suggesting that these texts operated more like poetry and myth than strict logical discourse. The source points out that apocalyptic literature frequently employs allusions to traditional imagery, particularly biblical phrases, which enrich the language through associations and multiple levels of meaning. It also addresses the more controversial use of mythological allusions, drawing from ancient Near Eastern and Greco-Roman traditions, arguing that these allusions transfer motifs and build analogies, enhancing the communicative power of the language without necessarily implying direct identification or the full original context.
5. The source critically examines the quest for the traditional sources of apocalypticism. It outlines various historical attempts to trace the origins of apocalyptic thought to prophecy, Persian dualism, wisdom traditions, and Canaanite mythology. While acknowledging that apocalypses draw on a wide range of sources, the text cautions against viewing apocalypticism as merely a derivative phenomenon. It argues that the meaning of a work is constituted by how these sources are combined, not simply by their identification. Furthermore, it suggests that the emphasis on specific origins has sometimes been driven by theological prejudices. The source highlights that while apocalypses present a form of wisdom by offering an understanding of the universe and history, this wisdom is acquired through revelation rather than inductive reasoning, aligning more closely with mantic wisdom. The relationship with wisdom literature is often one of shared underlying questions, such as theodicy, rather than direct derivation.
6. The text explores the settings of the genre. It critiques earlier scholarship's tendency to assume a singular social context for all apocalyptic literature. It emphasizes that "setting" is a complex issue with various dimensions, including the general matrix (such as postexilic prophecy and the Hellenistic milieu), more specific social and historical circumstances, the compositional setting (as a scribal phenomenon), and the literary function. The source discusses Paul Hanson's argument for the origins of apocalyptic thought in postexilic prophecy and examines the influence of Babylonian and Persian traditions. It highlights the significance of the Hellenistic world as a broader matrix where motifs from various cultures circulated. Regarding the social settings, it cautions against generalizations, noting that apocalyptic literature likely arose in diverse contexts and not necessarily solely within marginalized or persecuted communities. The compositional setting is characterized as a product of learned scribes drawing on traditional lore, with pseudonymity being a widespread literary device used to enhance authority. The literary function of apocalypses is often to provide exhortation and consolation to an audience facing some form of crisis, achieved through the distinctive "apocalyptic technique" of presenting a transcendent perspective that reinterprets their reality and offers a sense of ultimate resolution.
1. What is the basic definition of the literary genre "apocalypse" according to modern scholarship?