Source: “When Christians Were Jews: The First Generation”, by Paula Fredriksen, 2018.
This podcast examines the earliest followers of Jesus, arguing that they were fully immersed in first-century Judaism and expected the imminent end of the world. It challenges common interpretations of early Christian texts, suggesting that Paul's "persecution" was likely a form of Jewish disciplinary lashing within synagogues and that his outreach to gentiles did not mean abandoning the Law but rather insisting they worship only the God of Israel, just as Jewish "god-fearers" did. The text highlights the importance of ancient Jewish prophecy and the expectation of a messianic figure, demonstrating how events like Caligula's threat to the Temple and the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 CE fueled these apocalyptic beliefs and shaped early interpretations of Jesus' role and expected return.
Paul's Persecution and Suffering The source details Paul's experiences both as a persecutor of the early Jesus movement and as someone who was himself persecuted. Paul's own letters, particularly 2 Corinthians, provide a list of sufferings he endured as an apostle. These included receiving the thirty-nine lashes from Jewish communities five times, being beaten with rods by Roman magistrates three times, being stoned once, and facing various dangers from rivers, robbers, his own people (other diaspora Jews), pagans, false brethren (other members of the Jesus movement with whom he disagreed), and even the elements at sea. He also mentions enduring weaknesses, insults, hardships, persecutions, and calamities for the sake of Christ. This list paints a vivid picture of the challenges and opposition Paul faced in his missionary work.
The Nature of Persecution and Jewish Discipline The source reinterprets Paul's early actions as a "persecutor." Contrary to Luke's portrayal in Acts, which suggests Paul approved of execution and was involved in violent persecution aiming to destroy "the church," Paul's letters suggest a different picture. The "persecution" Paul inflicted might have involved the Jewish disciplinary measure of thirty-nine lashes. This form of lashing, administered by Jews to Jews within the Diaspora synagogue system, required the recipient's consent (as members belonged voluntarily) and was aimed at rehabilitation, seeking to correct behavior and maintain community inclusion rather than expulsion or destruction. The source argues that the RSV translation of Paul's statement in Galatians as persecuting "the church violently" is misleading, suggesting "assembly" instead of "church" and translating the Greek word hyperbolen as "to the utmost" or "extravagantly" rather than "violently." This indicates Paul's actions were likely intense disciplinary measures within the Jewish community structure.
Ancient Gods and Cosmology The source emphasizes the ancient understanding of a populated heaven, shared by pagans, Jews, and early Christians alike. Even for those considered "monotheists," the belief was not necessarily in the non-existence of other gods, but rather in the supreme status of one single god over many other, lower deities. This cosmology included not only celestial bodies like stars and planets (often named after gods and considered divine powers) but also other forces and entities like rulers, authorities, and powers, which were viewed as forms of intelligent, immortal, and divine life. This hierarchical structure of divine beings was a common framework in antiquity.
Greco-Roman Urban Religion and Pagan Gods Greco-Roman cities were fundamentally religious spaces, deeply integrated with the worship of pagan gods. Urban culture, including calendars, competitions, city councils, and performances, revolved around honoring these deities to ensure their goodwill. Diaspora Jews lived within these systems and showed respect to city gods while maintaining their ancestral practice of avoiding public cult acts and sacrifices, an idiosyncrasy that pagans largely understood and tolerated due to the ancient nature of Jewish traditions. Problems arose when natural disasters or social unrest occurred, interpreted as signs of divine discontent. In this context, maintaining proper ritual ("piety") and showing respect to the gods was seen as crucial for the city's well-being, making gods powerful social agents sensitive to perceived slights.
Pagan God-Fearers and the Jesus Movement Pagan god-fearers, who were affiliated with diaspora synagogues and had some familiarity with Jewish traditions and scriptures, presented both an opportunity and a liability for the early Jesus movement. They could understand concepts like "messiah," "David," and "Kingdom" central to the gospel message due to their synagogue background. However, for these pagans, joining the Jesus movement required a much more radical break than for Jews. While Jews joining the movement made a "lateral move" within Judaism, pagan god-fearers, by being baptized into the movement, were taught to commit exclusively to the worship of the god of Israel and cease worshipping their native gods, the deities of their families and cities. This refusal to engage in public pagan cult made them appear as if they had become Jews, even though the apostles taught that male god-fearers did not need to be circumcised.
Gentile Inclusion and the Circumcision Debate A major point of contention within the early Jesus movement was the requirement for gentile adherents. The source argues that the movement, from its early years, accepted gentiles without requiring male circumcision, viewing them as "eschatological gentiles" who would join Israel in worshipping God at the Endtime, fulfilling prophecies. This was the basis of the movement's "Law-free" gospel concerning gentile requirements. However, a faction within the movement, later described by Paul as "false brethren," began advocating for these gentile men to be formally converted to Judaism, including circumcision. This push for circumcision for gentiles was seen by the source as a mid-first-century innovation within the movement, not its original practice. This debate was highly divisive, especially in the Diaspora, and created social instability as uncircumcised gentiles refusing pagan cult lacked a clear social standing.
The Delay of the End and Apocalyptic Expectations The source identifies the stubborn failure of the predicted Endtime to arrive as the most significant problem facing the early Jesus movement. The movement began with the conviction that history's finale was imminent, fueled by events like Caligula's attempt to desecrate the Temple in 39-40 CE and later, the destruction of the Temple in 70 CE. These events were interpreted through apocalyptic prophecies, particularly from the Book of Daniel, as signs that the End was at hand and Jesus would soon return. However, as time continued, this delay caused disorientation and necessitated reinterpretations and adjustments within the community. The various conflicts and complexities within the movement, such as the debates over gentile inclusion, are seen as symptoms of this fundamental issue.
Conflicting Historical Accounts (Paul vs. Acts) The source frequently contrasts the historical picture derived from Paul's letters with the narrative presented in the Book of Acts. It argues that Acts, written later (late first or early second century), often smooths over the conflicts, messiness, and vibrant apocalyptic expectations of the earliest period. Examples include: Acts' portrayal of Paul's persecution as violent execution versus Paul's hints at disciplinary lashing; Acts' depiction of a harmonious Jerusalem council making definitive policy on gentile inclusion versus Paul's letters showing bitter disputes and no unified "gentile policy"; Acts' potentially anachronistic portrayal of institutional structures (deacons, elders, organized support for widows) in the early Jerusalem community; and Acts' calming effect on apocalyptic traditions, omitting references to Daniel's prophecy about the "abomination of desolation" compared to Mark's gospel. Paul's letters are considered more direct, albeit polemical, evidence of the early decades.
Messianic Expectations and Prophecy in Judea The source highlights the widespread messianic expectations in Judea during the first century, fueled by scriptural prophecies, particularly the "ambiguous oracle" noted by Josephus, Tacitus, and Suetonius, which suggested someone from their country would rule the world. These prophecies influenced various figures, including Jesus' followers (who saw Jesus' return as the fulfillment of Daniel's Son of Man prophecy), bandit-kings (whom Josephus describes using political terms like "tyrant" and "diadem" but whose followers would have seen them as messiahs), and sign-prophets who enacted biblical miracles to signal the nearness of redemption. While Josephus translates Jewish messianic rhetoric into Greco-Roman political idiom when describing rebels seizing power, the underlying scriptural hopes were a powerful motivator for their followers and contributed to the unstable social context.
Anachronistic Categories and the Jewishness of the Early Movement The source strongly argues that applying terms like "Christian" and "church" to the first generation of Jesus followers is anachronistic and distorts their reality. In their own context, these individuals, including Paul and Jesus, were traditionally observant Jews who saw their movement as an internal Jewish development. They worshipped the God of Israel, studied Jewish scriptures, observed the Sabbath, and viewed final redemption as an extension of Israel's history, including the incorporation of gentiles as gentiles, not necessarily as converts to Judaism. The source also discusses the ancient concept of divinity along a gradient, suggesting that the earliest understanding of Jesus' high status did not necessarily equate him fully with God the Father in the way later Christian doctrine would, further emphasizing the difference between the first generation's context and later "Christianity." The later development of Christianity as a separate, largely gentile religion and the emergence of anti-Judaism led to categories that obscure the original Jewish identity of the movement's founders.