Source: Marvin A. Sweeney, Jewish Mysticism: From Ancient Times through Today (Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2020), 89–127.
THE FORMER PROPHETS AND PSALMS.wav
This section explores visionary and dream texts within the Former Prophets (Joshua, Judges, Samuel, Kings) and Psalms, revealing how they depict the presence of YHWH among humanity. These visions often draw on imagery connected to the temple, the ark of the covenant, military figures (especially reflecting Israel's interactions with empires like Assyria), kingship (particularly the House of David), and creation. The authors employ these diverse metaphors to convey divine power and action without providing a direct, tangible image of YHWH, thereby adhering to Israelite prohibitions against idolatry and emphasizing YHWH's transcendence.
The Deuteronomistic History (DtrH) and its Theological Framework: The Former Prophets—Joshua, Judges, Samuel, and Kings—are recognized by modern scholars as the Deuteronomistic History (DtrH). This collection of books is seen as a relatively unified and coherent account of Israel's history, drawing language and ideas from the book of Deuteronomy. The DtrH covers the period from Israel's entry into the Promised Land under Joshua through the aftermath of the Babylonian Exile. A primary goal of the DtrH is to explain how and why Israel and Judah were exiled from the land promised by YHWH. It presents a distinct theological viewpoint, heavily dependent on Deuteronomy, arguing that the exile resulted from Israel and Judah's failure to observe the covenant made with YHWH. This perspective functions as a form of theodicy, defending YHWH's righteousness, power, and presence by placing responsibility for disaster squarely on the human partners to the covenant. Earlier editions of the DtrH likely existed, perhaps during the reign of King Josiah, which sought to restore unity and religious reform based on YHWH's Torah. The final form was edited and extended to account for the exile of Judah, demonstrating the consequence of failing to uphold the covenant demands.
Visionary and Dream Experiences as Divine Revelation: Visionary and dream texts are a recurring theme across the Former Prophets and Psalms, conveying the experience and presence of YHWH among human beings. These experiences serve as crucial moments of divine communication, commissioning, warning, or comfort for key figures. Examples include Joshua's encounter with the commander of YHWH's army near Jericho, which signifies YHWH's direct involvement in the conquest. Gideon receives instructions from YHWH through a vision account that commissions him as a messenger and deliverer and instructs him to purify the land by tearing down Canaanite altars. The young Samuel's calling occurs as an audial visionary experience in the Shiloh sanctuary near the ark of the covenant, identifying him as a prophet and priest. Saul, rejected by YHWH, seeks a forbidden visionary experience by consulting a medium at Endor to conjure the dead Samuel from Sheol, only to receive a message of condemnation and impending death. The prophet Nathan receives a vision (described as a hizayon) from YHWH at night, likely near the ark in Jerusalem, which delivers the crucial promise of an eternal dynasty for David. King Solomon experiences two significant visions in dreams – one at Gibeon where he asks for and is granted wisdom, long life, riches, and the lives of his enemies (conditionally), and another at the newly built Jerusalem Temple where the eternal promise to his dynasty is reaffirmed, though also framed with conditions based on obedience. The prophet Elijah has a profound vision at Mt. Horeb, experiencing YHWH's presence not in powerful natural phenomena like wind, earthquake, or fire, but in a subtle, almost silent manifestation, signifying YHWH's transcendence. Elisha, Elijah's successor, also has visionary experiences, including witnessing Elijah's ascent to heaven in a fiery chariot and enabling his servant to see YHWH's heavenly army of fiery chariots protecting them. Psalms, particularly Psalm 18 (2 Sam 22) and Psalm 68, are also presented as forms of visionary experience through their metaphorical and often dramatic descriptions of YHWH's actions and presence.
Imagery Used to Depict Divine Presence: Since Israelite and Judean thought prohibited portraying YHWH in tangible, idolatrous images, texts in the Former Prophets and Psalms employ diverse imagery to convey divine presence, character, and power. Temple and sanctuary imagery plays a significant role, with the ark of the covenant, the holy of holies, and altars serving as focal points where divine presence is experienced or localized. The Shiloh and Jerusalem temples housed the ark, which represented divine presence, and visionary experiences often occur in or near sanctuaries or places considered holy. Military imagery is frequently used, portraying YHWH as a divine warrior or the commander of a heavenly army (YHWH tzeva'ot). Angels sometimes appear as military figures conveying divine intent. The commander encountered by Joshua is an example, and the imagery of YHWH's army is prominent in Elisha's visions. This military imagery often draws on the experience of Israel and Judah with powerful empires like Assyria and Babylon, portraying YHWH as more powerful than human armies. Creation and natural imagery also describe YHWH's power and intervention, depicting events like earthquakes, fire, smoke, wind, storms, lightning, and the control over seas and the foundations of the earth. These phenomena demonstrate YHWH's mastery over creation, often combined with depictions of divine anger or active intervention. Elements from ancient Near Eastern mythology, such as YHWH riding on clouds or cherubim, are adapted to portray YHWH's mobility and power. Despite the variety of metaphors, the sources emphasize that these depictions do not provide a finite, tangible form of YHWH, but rather use symbolic language to enable understanding of the divine.
The Centrality of the Temple and Ark: Concern with the temple, including the Shiloh Temple and later the Jerusalem Temple, is a special focus in discussions of divine presence in the Former Prophets and Psalms. These sanctuaries housed the ark of the covenant for significant periods, and the ark itself symbolized divine presence. The imagery associated with the ark, the holy of holies (the inner sanctuary where the ark was kept), and the temple structure informs the imagery of the divine in visionary and dream texts. The ark's movement from Kiriath-jearim to Jerusalem by David was a key event in establishing Jerusalem as both the political and religious capital. Visionary experiences are often linked to temple settings, such as Samuel's calling before the ark at Shiloh, possibly associated with priestly incubation rituals. Although Nathan's vision promising David's dynasty isn't explicitly located by the ark, its occurrence after the ark's installation in Jerusalem and David's subsequent prayer before YHWH suggest a connection. Solomon offers sacrifice at Gibeon, a significant religious site connected to Kiriath-jearim where the ark resided, before building the Jerusalem Temple. The imagery of the ark as YHWH's throne or chariot, borne by cherubim, appears in visionary contexts and links the temple's central object to YHWH's mobility and power, reminiscent of Elijah's ascent or Ezekiel's vision.
Kingship, the House of David, and Covenant Conditions: The Former Prophets trace the transition of Israel's leadership from judges to kings, focusing significantly on the establishment of the monarchy, particularly the rise and reign of Saul, David, and Solomon. The book of Judges depicts increasing chaos and incompetence among the judges, highlighting the perceived need for a king to unite the nation. Saul is presented as Israel's first king but is largely discredited due to his failures to obey YHWH's instructions and his erratic behavior. David is portrayed favorably as YHWH's chosen king, rising to power despite Saul's animosity, uniting Israel and Judah, and establishing Jerusalem as the capital. A pivotal moment is YHWH's promise to David through the prophet Nathan (2 Sam 7) of an eternal dynasty, which uses the word "house" to refer both to the temple David wished to build and the perpetual royal line YHWH would establish for him. This promise is presented as largely unconditional in 2 Samuel. However, later texts, particularly in Kings and Psalms, reinterpret this promise, framing it as conditional upon the king's observance of YHWH's commandments. Solomon, the temple builder and David's successor, receives visions confirming the dynastic promise, but these visions also emphasize the condition of obedience. The DtrH narrative ultimately shows the failure of most Davidic kings to meet these conditions, leading to the destruction of the temple and the exile of the dynasty, thus providing a theological explanation for the end of the Davidic monarchy as a ruling entity in Jerusalem.
The Roles of Prophets and Priests: Key religious figures like Samuel, Elijah, and Elisha function in multifaceted roles that often blur the lines between prophet, priest, judge, and even warrior. Samuel serves as the last judge and the first major prophet in the narrative, anointing both Saul and David. Although not from the priestly tribe of Levi in the initial narrative, his dedication to the Shiloh sanctuary and visionary calling there, possibly linked to priestly ordination practices, suggest a priestly identity alongside his prophetic one. This raises questions about priestly practices, potentially involving the consecration of firstborn sons before the Levites took over this role. Elijah, while primarily called a prophet or "man of God," also performs priestly functions such as building an altar and offering sacrifice on Mt. Carmel. His encounter with YHWH in a cave on Mt. Horeb is described using language and imagery analogous to the holy of holies in a temple. Elisha, anointed by Elijah as his successor, also functions with both prophetic and priestly characteristics. His visions and actions, such as using Elijah's mantle like a Levitical rod or requiring music for prophecy (a practice associated with temple singers later identified as prophets), highlight a blend of roles. These figures serve as intermediaries for divine communication, challenging kings, performing miraculous acts, and embodying YHWH's will, sometimes in ways that appear to justify non-Levitical individuals engaging in activities typically associated with priests.
Visionary and dream texts are key to conveying YHWH's experience and presence. These texts often draw upon a blend of imagery. Temple imagery, including the ark of the covenant and the holy of holies, is significant due to its association with divine presence. Beyond the temple, the portrayal of angels as military figures, often resembling those from nations like Aram and Assyria, is used to show how YHWH conveys messages and intent. Kingship, particularly the House of David, and creation imagery, depicting YHWH as the ultimate King and creator, also contribute to the portrayal of the divine.