Source: “Paul On The Cross: Reconstructing The Apostle’s Story Of Redemption”, By David A. Brondos, Fortress Press, 2006.
he Jewish Story of Redemption Known to Paul.wav
This podcast examines the Jewish story of redemption prevalent in the first century, emphasizing that it is fundamentally distinct from later Christian interpretations. It highlights that this Jewish worldview, deeply rooted in the Hebrew Scriptures, centers on God's election of Israel and the covenant established under Moses, with promised blessings contingent on Israel's obedience to God's commandments. The text further clarifies that ancient Jewish thought understood atonement primarily through repentance and commitment to obedience, viewing sacrificial offerings as symbolic expressions of prayer and devotion rather than mechanical means to earn forgiveness or appease an obligated God. Ultimately, it stresses the Jewish belief in God's absolute sovereignty, asserting that God is not bound by human-conceived necessities for salvation, and can redeem Israel whenever and however He chooses.
Topic 1: The Jewish Story of Redemption and its Foundation The worldview prevalent among most Jews in the first century was built upon a foundational story, essentially derived from the Hebrew Scriptures. This narrative speaks of God, the creator, electing Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, and their descendants, known as Israel, to be His distinct people. God promised them numerous blessings, particularly the gift of a specific land. These promises were set within the framework of a covenant established under Moses, following God's deliverance of Israel from Egypt. The exodus, the covenant's establishment, and the giving of commandments were all understood as acts of divine grace and mercy. A crucial aspect of this story is the belief that the promised blessings were conditional upon Israel's obedience to these commandments. Obedience was expected to bring prosperity, while disobedience would lead to suffering, hunger, devastation, illness, death, oppression, and exile by other nations. This belief consistently informed the interpretation of Israel's history throughout their sacred texts and other ancient writings, where various disasters were seen as God's response to Israel's sins, intended to discipline and purify them towards practicing justice and righteousness. Nevertheless, influenced by prophetic writings, there was a strong expectation that Israel's God would eventually act to redeem His people, restoring their fortunes in the land He had given them and initiating a new era characterized by abundance, prosperity, long life, and freedom from oppressors. While there were some internal differences among Jews regarding specific details, such as the role of a Messiah or the extent of Gentile participation, this overarching story of redemption was widely held during Jesus' time.
Topic 2: Distinctive Nature of Jewish Soteriology The Jewish story of redemption significantly differs from later Christian narratives, which often employed Hellenistic modes of thought. Foremost, the Jewish foundation story centers on the redemption of Israel as a specific people. The promises of salvation were made within a covenant exclusive to Israel, fostering concrete hopes for the restoration of Israel and its capital, Jerusalem, in the promised land, along with liberation from foreign powers like the Romans. In contrast, some Christian stories posit an objective redemption or transformation affecting all human beings by virtue of their shared humanity. Jewish soteriology, however, progresses from the particular—the patriarchs and their descendants—to the universal, concerning the fate of nations as a whole. God's primary design is to redeem His chosen people, Israel, rather than humanity in general. Although righteous non-Jews were thought to share in this redemption to some extent, it was understood that the nations would share in the salvation of Israel, not the other way around. The destiny of the Gentiles was inextricably linked to and dependent upon the fate of Israel. Furthermore, Jewish thought primarily focused on the salvation of a nation or people collectively, with individuals finding their salvation through their membership within Israel and the covenant, which guaranteed their future salvation. The Jewish hope was not for the cessation of the world or human history, but for the advent of a new age of redemption, defined as the fulfillment of ancient promises for a new historical reality of freedom, peace, abundance, and happiness in their land, rather than a disembodied state after death.
Topic 3: The Jewish Conception of Forgiveness of Sins In ancient Jewish thought, the understanding of divine forgiveness was deeply rooted in concrete historical events affecting individuals or the entire people, contrasting with later Christian notions of abstract eternal salvation or inner peace. It was commonly believed that when circumstances were favorable, it signified either freedom from sin or God's forgiveness. Conversely, suffering was often interpreted as God's chastisement or discipline for unpardoned sin. When individuals offered sacrifices, their aim was not merely to gain an inner spiritual assurance of being "right with God" or to have sins overlooked at a final judgment. Instead, they sought deliverance from everyday hardships and tangible blessings, often of a material nature. This applied equally to the nation; Israel would recognize God's forgiveness of their sins upon being redeemed from the afflictions caused by those sins. Thus, redemption and forgiveness were virtually synonymous terms, signifying God's tangible intervention to alleviate suffering and restore prosperity.
Topic 4: Absence of Realized Eschatology in First-Century Jewish Thought A key distinction of the first-century Jewish worldview was the absence of the concept of objective or potential salvation that might occur "in principle" before becoming an "actual" reality. Unlike later Christian theology, which often presents forms of "realized eschatology" where humanity or creation has already undergone some hidden or invisible redemption (e.g., renewed human nature, definitively attained forgiveness, vanquished evil powers, or transfer into a new age), Jewish thought clearly did not embrace such ideas. It was evident to all that God had not yet fully forgiven Israel's sins or acted to redeem them. The awaited transformation of the world and the ultimate defeat of evil had not taken place. The dead had not been raised, those in the diaspora had not returned home, and Israel had not been liberated from its foreign oppressors. These events were not considered to have occurred "potentially" but not "actually," nor in an objective, universal manner awaiting a subjective response. In this Jewish framework, the people and the world continued to exist in the "present age," characterized by suffering, sin, and evil, with the "age to come" not having arrived in any sense.
Topic 5: Obedience and Covenantal Nomism as Conditions for Salvation For the Jewish people to attain the promised covenant blessings, obedience to God's commandments was considered indispensable throughout their sacred texts and ancient writings. While some scholars, such as E. P. Sanders, clarified that ancient Jews did not believe they could "earn" salvation through obedience, they consistently viewed it as the "conditio sine qua non" or an absolutely necessary condition for salvation. This apparent tension is often reconciled through the concept of "covenantal nomism," distinguishing between "getting in" and "staying in." "Getting in" was understood to depend entirely on divine grace and election. "Staying in" the covenant, however, depended on obedience to the commandments. The common Jewish perspective was that obedience sustained one's position within the covenant, ensuring continued reception of God's grace, rather than meriting it. Thus, salvation was ultimately dependent on this ongoing obedience. While good works were not seen as earning salvation in the sense of making a rightful claim on God or establishing an automatic system, they were understood to "deserve" or "merit" a response from God. The idea that fulfilling commandments would automatically bring about justification and salvation, thereby allowing people to save themselves and negating God's mercy, was contrary to Jewish thought. God was consistently viewed as intensely personal, absolutely sovereign, and active in history, not subject to an independent system. God always remained free, acting as He wished, even when allowing suffering or refraining from immediate punishment. Human deeds, while imperfect, were indeed believed to merit certain responses from God, though the specific rewards and punishments were ultimately for God alone to decide, according to His sovereign and inscrutable will. What truly mattered to God was not human perfection, which is impossible, but the individual's sincere commitment to doing God's will, often termed "confessing the commandments." All who were committed to remaining in the covenant and obeying the law were considered righteous and true Israel, and were expected to be saved, as perfection was neither expected nor demanded for justification before God.
Topic 6: The Delay of Redemption and the Concept of Torah-Intensification The continued absence of the awaited redemption, despite centuries of striving to observe the commandments, suggested to the Jewish people that their obedience was not yet sufficient in God's eyes. This led to the understanding that God had not yet forgiven their sins but was still disciplining and purifying them from sinful ways. Consequently, what was deemed necessary was for the people to become more obedient, diligently observing the commandments, and perhaps for a larger portion of the Jewish population to achieve this level of obedience, implying that God was delaying to allow more time for repentance. This perspective spurred a movement labeled "Torah-intensification," which involved a meticulous study of the law to ensure correct interpretation and proper observance of every commandment. It also entailed actively encouraging others to greater law-observance through calls to repentance and instruction on proper adherence. Groups such as the Essenes and the Pharisees notably practiced a stricter obedience, evidently hoping that their heightened faithfulness would prompt God to act and redeem His people. Despite a general agreement that God would rescue those faithful to His covenant and Torah from their enemies, there was considerable disagreement regarding the precise interpretation of the Torah's commandments and which Jews were genuinely faithful to them.
Topic 7: The Role of Divine Grace and Faith in Future Redemption Despite centuries of persistent effort to observe the commandments, the redemption had not arrived, leading some to conclude that something beyond human effort was required: an act of divine grace. This included the belief that God Himself would have to grant Israel the obedience He demanded. This idea is evident in prophetic writings, where there are promises of God placing His law within His people, writing it upon their hearts, removing hearts of stone, and pouring out His Spirit. Such expectations generally pertained to the "coming age" rather than the present one. Consequently, the Jewish people understood that their role was to keep the commandments to the best of their ability and patiently await God's fulfillment of His promises. They trusted that God would eventually act to vindicate them, despite their perceived corruption and undeservingness, recognizing that they needed further purification and refinement. Trust in God meant submitting to His will, both passively by humbly accepting whatever God determined and actively by performing His commands. Thus, in Jewish thought, salvation involved faith—placing their future in God's hands. This was not viewed as faith versus works, but rather as faith and trust in God expressed through lives dedicated to doing God's commanded works, coupled with confidence that God would, in due time, fulfill His promises.
Topic 8: Jewish Understanding of Atonement and Sacrifice In ancient Jewish thought, atonement and sacrifice were understood in ways that differ significantly from certain later Christian interpretations. The notion that an animal's death served as a substitution for human sin, vicariously enduring a death penalty that sinners deserved, is problematic and not explicitly articulated in their texts. Instead, expiatory sacrifices were primarily for inadvertent sins, not those meriting death, and the Mosaic law did not permit an animal substitute to avert a death penalty. The practice of offering flour instead of an animal for sin, which still resulted in atonement and forgiveness, further demonstrates that a literal death was not always deemed necessary. Other animal sacrifices, like peace offerings, were not for expiation or forgiveness at all. The idea of sins being literally transferred to an animal victim is also not clearly supported, even in the scapegoat ritual, where the goat was sent away, not sacrificed, and other sacrificed animals' remains were considered holy, not contaminated. A major concern with certain interpretations is their portrayal of sacrifice in a mechanical fashion, as if killing an animal automatically produced divine forgiveness or eradicated sin. This also applies to views of sin as a "malignant organism" that can be transferred and eliminated. Such mechanical understandings suggest that God established a system by which people could save themselves or compel His favor, which contradicts the Jewish belief in God's absolute sovereignty. In Jewish thought, God did not require sacrifices or sacrificial blood to forgive, nor was He bound to such a system. It was always God's prerogative to judge the sincerity of repentance and grant or deny forgiveness. The efficacy of a sacrifice depended not on the ritual itself, but on the presence of faith and repentance in the worshiper. The fact that prayer and good deeds could substitute for sacrifices when the Temple system was corrupt or unavailable (as with the Essenes and later Rabbis) confirms that the spirit of repentance and obedience, not the material offering, was the true means of atonement. Prophets consistently stressed that justice, mercy, and righteousness pleased God more than mere sacrificial offerings. Ultimately, sacrifices were seen as accompanying and representing acts of prayer, with the Temple functioning as a "house of prayer." Offerings were material expressions of sincerity, submission, and obedience, meant to please God through the worshiper's sincere "voice" of confession and repentance that ascended with them. God could not be manipulated through prayer or sacrifice, and His favor could not be bought; rather, He promised to accept offerings presented with the right spirit and to grant forgiveness to those making them with a pure heart. Rituals, including the use of blood, were understood symbolically, representing concepts like identification, purification, and God's gracious removal of sins, but without attributing inherent power to the blood itself.
Topic 9: Suffering, Death, and Atonement Beyond Sacrifice Beyond sacrificial offerings, ancient Jewish thought recognized other avenues for atonement, particularly suffering and death. However, this was not understood as a penal substitution where one person underwent divine punishment for the sins of others. Instead, suffering and death were seen as atoning when accompanied by repentance and a steadfast commitment to obey God's laws. The example of the Maccabean martyrs, such as Eleazar, illustrates this. Their suffering and death, endured out of faithfulness to God's law, were understood as a chastisement meant to discipline and purify the people, not to destroy them. Their unwavering commitment inspired others to repentance and obedience. Eleazar's prayer, made in the midst of torment, was a petition for God to turn away His wrath based on Eleazar's faithfulness unto death, demonstrating that the divine punishments had achieved their intended purpose of bringing about the desired obedience. God's reconciliation and deliverance of the people were thus attributed to Eleazar's obedience and prayer, which spurred a renewed commitment to God's will among the nation. His death was considered an "atonement" or "ransom" not because it fulfilled a divine need for punishment, but because it expressed and caused repentance and served as an intercession. While the righteousness of one person could avail for others, this was understood as God listening to the prayers of the righteous and mercifully suspending judgment for their sake, not as a substitute enduring punishment. Similarly, the concept of "messianic travail" or intense tribulation preceding redemption was understood as a process to purify and test God's people, ensuring that only those truly committed to God's will would be saved through their own commitment, not through the endurance of a representative or substitute. God desired the obedience and righteousness of all His people. Therefore, there is no strong basis to suggest that anything other than repentance and obedience was necessary for God to bring about Israel's salvation; repentance, in particular, was considered the sovereign means of atonement.
Topic 10: The Absolute Sovereignty of God in Jewish Thought A cornerstone of biblical and Jewish thought is the absolute sovereignty of God, who is consistently viewed as almighty and capable of doing whatever He wills. This stands in stark contrast to later Christian theological arguments that often posit limitations on God's actions, derived from philosophical assumptions about God's nature or the created order. These Christian arguments frequently claim that God is bound by His justice to require satisfaction or punishment for sin, or that fallen human nature must be restored from within, thereby asserting a "necessity" for certain divine actions, such as sending His Son. Such arguments were then sometimes anachronistically read back into ancient Jewish thought to suggest that bloody sacrifices or a martyr's death were indispensable for divine forgiveness or redemption. However, in the Jewish worldview, there is no inherent necessity to which God is subject. Nothing, including God's own nature (as defined by human beings) or any covenant, is believed to restrict God from redeeming Israel or the world at any time and in any manner He chooses. God could, for instance, forgive sins freely without demanding sacrifice or punishment, overthrow evil powers by a mere command, or transform human hearts by pouring out His Spirit. He could raise the dead and grant immortality at any moment, using the same power He used to create the universe, without needing to infuse mysterious "resurrection-principles" or unite divine and human natures. While God's behavior towards His people was consistently understood as loving, just, and fair, this was not equated with an immutable obligation. To claim God must act in a certain way due to a pre-defined nature or a self-imposed, irreversible system would contradict Jewish beliefs in God's limitless freedom. Therefore, the only true condition necessary for salvation to occur was God's will that it occur. While it was believed that God desired repentance and obedience from Israel and delayed redemption due to their insufficient response, nothing ultimately prevented God from acting at any time. God alone determined what level of obedience was satisfactory and could graciously accept any degree of imperfect human obedience. Moreover, even Israel's response of obedience was ultimately understood as dependent on God's activity in purifying His people and granting them new hearts and spirits, rather than something they could achieve entirely on their own. This highlights the absence of foundational arguments for necessity that characterize later Christian theological developments.