Source: Richard Bauckham, Jesus and the God of Israel: God Crucified and Other Essays on the New Testament’s Christology of Divine Identity (Paternoster, 2008), 151–181.
This podcast delves into Second Temple Jewish monotheism, emphasizing that the worship of YHWH was central and exclusive, rooted in God being the sole Creator and Ruler of all things. While some Jewish texts portray intermediary figures or angels, these are generally seen as subordinate servants and not included in God's unique identity or worthy of divine worship. The concept of the heavenly throne symbolizes God's absolute sovereignty, and for a figure to be depicted as seated on this throne signifies inclusion within the unique divine identity. Early Christians, by portraying Jesus as seated on God's throne and receiving worship, demonstrate their belief in his inclusion within this unique divine identity, often drawing on key scriptural texts like Psalm 110:1 to support this novel claim within a Jewish monotheistic framework.
1. Second Temple Jewish Monotheism and God's Unique Identity:
This section establishes the foundation of Jewish religious understanding during the late Second Temple period. It emphasizes that YHWH, the God of Israel, is the only God and is alone to be worshipped. This belief was central, reinforced by daily recitation of the Shemaʿ and the first two commandments of the Decalogue, which were understood as requiring exclusive devotion and cultic worship of God. The source highlights that for Jews of this period, the primary focus was on who God is (his unique identity) rather than abstract concepts of divine nature or essence. This unique identity is defined by specific, distinctive activities and characteristics, most notably that God is the only Creator of all things (heaven, earth, sea, and everything in them) and the only sovereign Ruler of all things (nature and history). These two features establish an absolute distinction between God and all other reality: God is uncreated and subject to none, while everything else is created by him and subject to his will, even the most exalted creatures. Other unique characteristics like God being the only Eternal One or seeing all things are seen as corollaries. This understanding of God's unique identity was common throughout Second Temple Jewish literature and provided a clear reason why worship was restricted exclusively to God; worship was understood as the acknowledgement of this qualitative uniqueness, God's identity as only Creator and only Sovereign. This entailed a radical relativizing of all distinctions between creatures, even those in heaven.
2. Intermediary Figures in Relation to Divine Identity:
Following the discussion of God's unique identity, the source examines various intermediary figures depicted in Second Temple Jewish literature. The crucial question is whether these figures are included within the unique divine identity or fall outside it. The source argues for two distinct categories. The first includes figures that are part of the unique divine identity; these are identified as personifications or hypostatizations of aspects of God himself, such as his Spirit, Word, or Wisdom. These are intrinsic to God's being and are compatible with his absolute uniqueness. The second category consists of figures who, although they act as God's servants and may exercise delegated authority, are not included in God's unique identity and do not threaten its uniqueness. This category includes principal angels and exalted patriarchs. The source suggests that once God's unique identity as sole Creator and sole Ruler is understood, figures participating in creation or exercising overall sovereignty are within the divine identity, while those who do not are outside it. For example, principal angels and exalted patriarchs are not portrayed as participating in creation, whereas God's Wisdom and Word are regularly linked to creation. The source also dissents from the idea that Jewish writers commonly envisaged a single high-ranking intermediary figure like a grand vizier who held plenary divine sovereignty; instead, the imagery often involves God ruling through a council of angelic ministers with differentiated responsibilities, emphasizing their strict subordination. Visible appearance is not considered a reliable criterion for divine identity, as descriptions of heavenly beings often use standard imagery of brightness and glory common to many heavenly figures, not unique to God.
3. The Heavenly Throne of God as a Symbol of Sovereignty:
The heavenly throne of God is presented as a key symbol in Second Temple Judaism representing God's sole sovereignty over all things, as established in the Hebrew Bible (e.g., Psalm 103:19). The throne is often called the 'throne of [his] glory'. A significant aspect of its depiction is that in most cases, God's throne is unique and the only throne in heaven. This is contrasted with the posture of angels and other heavenly beings who attend God; they are regularly described as standing, which is the posture of a servant. This reinforces the idea that God alone rules, and all other heavenly beings function in subservience and service. There are exceptions or apparent exceptions noted, such as the plural 'thrones' in Daniel 7:9, which is interpreted variously (divine court of judgment, seated council) but often understood as not representing co-rulership in heavenly government. Later rabbinic tradition explicitly states that 'on high there is no sitting'. The vast height of the heavens and God's throne located at the summit further symbolize God's absolute rule, extending not just over human society but over the entire cosmos, differentiating God from all creatures below him. The general trend in the literature is towards depicting heaven with no thrones other than God's, underscoring the logic of monotheism.
4. Figures Depicted on the Throne in Jewish Literature:
This section examines instances in Second Temple Jewish literature where figures distinguishable from God are depicted as being seated on or associated with God's throne, as a potential means of including them in the unique divine identity. Three specific cases are discussed. The first is Wisdom, who is portrayed in texts like 1 Enoch 84 and the book of Wisdom as seated beside God as his assessor or adviser on his throne. This is not seen as a threat to monotheism because Wisdom is understood as God's own Wisdom, intrinsic to his divine identity, not a separate being whose advice God needs. The second case is Moses in Ezekiel the Tragedian's account of Moses' dream. In the dream, Moses literally sits on God's cosmic throne, surveying and ruling the universe. However, the source argues that this depiction is intended to be figurative, as indicated by Raguel's interpretation of the dream. Moses sitting on the throne and ruling heavenly bodies in the dream is interpreted as referring to Moses' historical role as king and prophet over Israel on earth, drawing on biblical precedents like Joseph's dream and the description of Moses as "God to Pharaoh" (Exodus 7:1). The dream literally depicts Moses replacing God in unique sovereignty, but its meaning is metaphorical. The third case is the Son of Man in the Parables of Enoch. This figure, also called the Righteous One or Elect One, is explicitly depicted as being placed by God on God's own throne of glory to execute eschatological judgment. The source argues that this is intended literally and signifies the Son of Man's participation in God's unique sovereignty. Furthermore, the Son of Man receives worship when seated on the throne, described in terms used elsewhere for the worship of God. This is seen as acknowledgement of his inclusion in the unique divine identity, recognizing his shared rule. The Son of Man in the Parables of Enoch is highlighted as unique among exalted figures in Jewish literature for literally sitting on the divine throne and receiving worship, contrasting with Moses whose enthronement was figurative and other figures who do not receive worship.
5. Jesus on the Heavenly Throne of God in Early Christianity:
The discussion shifts to how early Christianity applied the concept of sharing the divine throne to Jesus. The source identifies Psalm 110:1 ("The Lord says to my Lord: 'Sit at my right hand until I make your enemies a footstool for your feet'") as the single most important verse from the Hebrew Scriptures for early Christology, frequently cited and interpreted across various early Christian writings. This extensive and early use suggests it was foundational. Early Christians understood Jesus' exaltation after Easter as his sharing the divine throne in heaven and thus participating in God's cosmic rule. This application of Psalm 110:1 to Jesus, specifically in the sense of participating in God's unique cosmic sovereignty, is seen as novel compared to its absence or different use in Second Temple Jewish literature. Combining Psalm 110:1 with texts like Psalm 8:6 and Daniel 7:13-14 facilitated the understanding of Jesus' rule over "all things," "heaven and earth," and fuller cosmic scopes, language specifically used in Jewish monotheism to distinguish God from creation. This terminology places Jesus clearly on the divine side of the distinction. His cosmic rule is further emphasized by the subjection of all heavenly powers (rebellious and obedient) to him. The imagery of height is also used to reinforce Jesus' absolute supremacy, portraying him as ascended "far above all the heavens" and all angelic authorities, having received the divine name, which is superior to all other names. These descriptions apply to Jesus the same language used to portray God's absolute supremacy over creatures from his heavenly throne.