Source: Brian Neil Peterson, John’s Use of Ezekiel: Understanding the Unique Perspective of the Fourth Gospel (Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press, 2015), 5–31.
The Uniqueness of John’s Gospel.wav
This podcast argues that the Gospel of John's unique literary features, distinct from the Synoptic Gospels, are heavily influenced by the Old Testament book of Ezekiel. The author proposes that John structured his Gospel around Ezekiel's rhetorical framework and themes, such as the use of signs and the concept of coming to "know that I am Yahweh," which are mirrored in John's emphasis on Jesus' divinity and the purpose of his signs. The podcast highlights parallels in their historical contexts, their experiences of rejection, and their roles as witnesses against a disbelieving audience, suggesting that these shared circumstances led John to draw upon Ezekiel's prophecy as a guiding structural pattern and theological source for his own writing.
1. The Uniqueness of John's Gospel Compared to the Synoptics: This is a foundational topic, highlighting how the Gospel of John stands apart from Matthew, Mark, and Luke. The sources point out several distinctive features. Chronologically, John focuses on a much shorter period of Jesus' life, specifically only about twenty days, compared to the Synoptics which cover His life from birth to death, though selectively. Beyond chronology, John includes accounts unique to his Gospel while omitting key features found in the others. The ordering of material also differs significantly. Furthermore, the theological and Christological emphases in John, as well as the author's rhetorical outlook, contribute to its distinctiveness. Even when examining parallel passages (pericopae) that appear in all four Gospels, there are variations in how John recounts the events. Specific examples of these peculiarities are numerous. For instance, John has an abrupt and exalted introduction of Jesus in chapter 1, contrasting sharply with Matthew and Luke's beginnings focusing on Jesus' early life. Mark's beginning is closer but still less explicit about Jesus' divinity. The cleansing of the temple appears early in John's Gospel (chapter 2), unlike the Synoptics where it occurs late in Jesus' ministry. John also devotes ten verses to this event, compared to just two or three in the Synoptics. Strikingly, John omits significant events found in the Synoptics, such as Jesus' temptation and transfiguration, and the institution of the communion meal. Exorcisms by Jesus, prevalent in the Synoptics, are also notably absent in John. Conversely, John includes considerable material not found in the Synoptics, including the narrative content of chapters 2–4, the distinctive "I Am" Sayings of Jesus, and a reliance on signs to prove Jesus' divinity. John depicts Jesus making three trips to Jerusalem for Passover, as opposed to one in the Synoptics. The raising of Lazarus in John 11 is another major event unique to this Gospel. Chapters 13–17, which contain extended treatment of Jesus' last hours and the Farewell Discourses, lack parallels in the other Gospels. Finally, the insufflation in chapter 20 and the putative appendix in chapter 21, including the post-cross call of Peter, are unique to John. These are just some of the more obvious peculiarities; micro-level comparisons would reveal many more variations. While source-critical theories once suggested John was unaware of or did not use the Synoptics, or relied solely on independent sources, this is being re-examined due to linguistic analyses indicating mutual dependence on similar sources or tradition. Many scholars now believe John was aware of the Synoptic Gospels or their source material, challenging the notion that John is less historical than the Synoptics.
2. Ezekiel as a Proposed Explanation for John's Uniqueness: The source material proposes that many of the unique literary features of the Fourth Gospel can be understood when viewed through the lens of the book of Ezekiel. This perspective aims to address the "major lacuna" in New Testament studies regarding the use of Ezekiel. While scholarly attempts to explain John's distinctiveness have explored various influences, such as the Essene community, Second Temple literature, oral tradition, rhetorical needs related to synagogue hostilities, Samaritan sympathies, and anti-Gnostic agendas, the author suggests looking in another direction. While acknowledging that first-century theological needs shaped the Gospel, the author argues these do not fully explain the numerous literary peculiarities. Focusing solely on earlier Gospel styles or the socio-religious context of the first century is seen as limiting. Instead, the author proposes that the Hebrew Bible and its Greek translation (Septuagint/LXX), as the dominant literature shaping first-century Judaism, is the most likely primary literary influence. While the entire Hebrew Bible served as a background, the author is convinced that Ezekiel had the most significant influence on John's theological and rhetorical purposes, accounting for many of the observed differences from the Synoptics.
3. John's Method of Using the Old Testament, Especially Ezekiel: The Hebrew Bible/LXX served as a primary literary influence for all the Gospel writers, including John. John's frequent use of terms like "Scripture" and "writings" serves as a clue that he had the Hebrew Bible in view while writing. However, John's method of utilizing the Old Testament is distinct. Unlike Matthew, who employs a "simple 'proof-text' method" with numerous direct references (124 in Matthew vs. 27 direct references in John), John uses the Old Testament in a "novel manner." He focuses on collecting its sense rather than quoting extensively. His style is described as esoteric and indirectly suggestive, preferring bare, terse clues, metaphors, or motifs over full citations. This use of veiled allusions, which might seem obscure to modern readers, would have likely been more recognizable to a Jewish or Jewish-Christian audience familiar with the Scriptures. While John used the entire Old Testament corpus as a comprehensive unity and a background/framework for the new revelation, the author posits that Ezekiel specifically served as a primary guiding "framework" and influence. This influence is characterized by the "exploitation of certain themes or concepts" more likely derived from Ezekiel than other sources, even though John does not quote Ezekiel directly. The author suggests John tends to work on a macro level with themes and motifs, using allusions to connect Jesus' life to the Old Testament and prophets. However, at certain points, John also uses specific inter-textual clues (like similar words or phrases) to draw attention to parallels, many of which align with Ezekiel.
4. Structural and Thematic Parallels with Ezekiel: The source material highlights striking rhetorical and structural parallels that emerge when comparing John's Gospel closely with the book of Ezekiel. The author contends that John was aware of the importance of the strategically placed visions in Ezekiel and structured his Gospel around the theological messages connected to these visions. Specifically, Ezekiel's first two visionary sequences (chapters 1-11 concerning judgment) are linked to Jesus' period of public ministry in John (chapters 1-12). Ezekiel's second two visions (chapters 25-48 concerning restoration and hope) are addressed in the latter portions of John, specifically the Farewell Discourses and the post-resurrection scene (chapters 13-21). Beyond this proposed structural framework, John also utilized other concepts from Ezekiel. Ezekiel's sign acts, which served to vindicate his message and act as a witness against a wayward people, find striking parallels in John's use of Jesus' signs (σημεῖα). These signs function to vindicate Jesus' message and divinity in the face of unbelief. Closely linked to this is the theme of coming to the knowledge of Yahweh in Ezekiel, often expressed in the phrase "then you/they will know that I am Yahweh," which appears at least sixty-three times and is tied to the covenant. In John, Jesus' signs and "I Am" Sayings similarly aim to bring about belief and knowledge of who Jesus was. The literary style also shows affinity; John's use of extended discourse and dialogic material, unlike the Synoptics' shorter sayings, is more reflective of the oracles of Old Testament prophets, particularly Ezekiel whose extended oracles and metaphors were unique. Linguistic clues also suggest parallels, such as John's use of "Son of man" (huios anthrōpou) in 5:27, which is comparable to Ezekiel's title for himself (ben-ʾādām). Thematic parallels like vine imagery and shepherding language are also noted as potential influences from Ezekiel on John.
5. Potential Reasons for John's Emphasis on Ezekiel: The author explores why John might have chosen to structure his Gospel around Ezekiel's prophecy. One possibility is simply authorial preference for Ezekiel's writing style and message, potentially linked to John's own background if he was related to the priestly class, mirroring Ezekiel's role as a priestly prophet. Ezekiel's ministry was marked by signs, visions, and metaphors, and his message was largely rejected; similarly, John highlighted Jesus' ministry with signs and metaphors, and Jesus' message was also largely rejected. A more compelling reason suggested is a shared rhetorical agenda rooted in similar life experiences and contexts. The source outlines three levels of continuity: historical/geo-political, socio-religious, and personal. Historically, both Ezekiel and John lived through "watershed moments" involving the destruction of the temple (586 BCE and 70 CE, respectively). Both experienced oppression by foreign powers (Babylon and Rome) that sent them into exile. If John the Revelator is the same author, his own exile and prophetic visions would further resonate with Ezekiel's experience. Socio-religiously, both periods were characterized by people giving only lip service to God, trusting the temple while their hearts were distant. Both prophets brought messages of warning and judgment, but also offered hope to those who would listen. Personally, if John the apostle wrote the Gospel, as the potentially sole surviving apostle, he might have empathized with Ezekiel's lonely role as Yahweh's solitary voice in exile, especially after Ezekiel's loss of his wife. These parallel circumstances, particularly the theme of Israel's failure to listen to Yahweh's mouthpiece (Ezekiel and Jesus), resulting in judgment (destruction of the city/temple) and living in exile, may strongly account for the close parallels and John's decision to emulate Ezekiel.
6. The Lawsuit Framework in John and Ezekiel: The source proposes that the Fourth Gospel, like the book of Ezekiel, may be structured in ways that parallel the Old Testament covenant lawsuit genre (rîḇ formula). While Ezekiel may not follow the rigid formula strictly, he functions as a covenant enforcer calling Judah to account for covenant violations. In John's Gospel, the concept of "witness" has a forensic or court dimension, suggesting the narrative unfolds within a "cosmic trial or lawsuit." In this lawsuit, "the Jews" are depicted as prosecuting Jesus for his divine claims. Crucially, like any trial, it requires credible witnesses. Jesus calls various witnesses, including John the Baptist. The Gospel gives special attention to eyewitnesses who saw and heard Jesus, such as the Samaritan woman, the man born blind, Mary Magdalene, and the disciples. The Gospel itself is presented as a trustworthy account based on the eyewitness testimony of the beloved disciple. Testifying about Jesus is emphasized, and the "fear of the Jews" is noted as a factor preventing some from testifying. While Ezekiel lacks other specific testimonies as witnesses to Yahweh's works, he himself serves as a witness against the rebellious exiles, and his divinely commanded sign acts serve as both vindication of his message and a witness against the people. In both books, witnesses—verbal and visual (signs/sign acts)—function to vindicate the messenger (Jesus/Ezekiel) and convict the audience of unbelief and breaking the covenant. This lawsuit setting strikes a harmonious chord with the theme of judgment for rejecting the message. Judgment is a hallmark of both Ezekiel (chapters 1-3, 8-11), where Yahweh is depicted as the presiding judge, and John, which focuses more on Jesus' judgment on the world than other Gospels. Although John notes that Jesus did not come in his first coming to judge the world entirely (reserving final judgment for his second coming), the theme of judgment is prominent, linking to Ezekiel's role as a judge for his community, a role he shares with Jesus, who is also given authority to judge because he is the "Son of man," a title used in both books.
The Gospel of John stands out significantly from Matthew, Mark, and Luke (the Synoptic Gospels) in several ways. While the Synoptics provide a more comprehensive overview of Jesus' life from birth to death, John focuses on a much shorter period of Jesus' ministry (around twenty days). John also includes narratives and features absent in the Synoptics, such as the "I Am" sayings, the extensive use of "signs" to demonstrate Jesus' divinity, multiple trips to Jerusalem for Passover, the raising of Lazarus, and the lengthy Farewell Discourses. Conversely, John omits key events found in the Synoptics, like the temptation of Jesus, the Transfiguration, exorcisms, and the institution of the communion meal. Furthermore, the ordering of events and the overall rhetorical approach in John are often distinct.