Source: “When Christians Were Jews: The First Generation”, by Paula Fredriksen, 2018.
This podcast explores the historical context of early Christianity, specifically focusing on the beliefs and practices of Jesus's first followers in Jerusalem and the role of the temple. It highlights that these initial adherents, including key figures like Paul, were Jewish and fervently believed in the imminent arrival of the Kingdom of God, expecting Jesus's return and the establishment of divine rule to happen in their lifetime. The author uses various sources, including the Apostle Paul's letters and the works of the Jewish historian Josephus, to reconstruct this period and analyze the Gospels' sometimes conflicting accounts of Jesus's mission and his relationship with Jerusalem and its temple, ultimately arguing that the earliest Jesus followers were likely positively oriented toward the Jerusalem Temple and its cult.
The Earliest Jesus Followers' Identity and Apocalyptic Convictions: The initial followers of Jesus, including figures like Peter, James, John, Paul, and Barnabas, were Jews. They were not focused on creating a new religion but were deeply committed to Jesus' core prophecy: "The times are fulfilled, and the Kingdom of God is at hand! Repent, and trust in the good news!" This conviction meant they expected God to imminently fulfill ancient promises to Israel, including redeeming history, defeating evil, raising the dead, and establishing universal justice and peace. They believed Jesus' resurrection confirmed the imminent general resurrection and the arrival of God's Kingdom, which they linked to the victorious return of their messiah. They saw the period after Jesus' resurrection as a brief, Spirit-charged gap between "now" and "soon," during which they were to continue Jesus' mission of spreading the message of the coming Kingdom. Their profound confidence stemmed from this fervent belief in the world's impending end.
Paul's Testimony to Imminent End Times: The apostle Paul is presented as the earliest surviving voice from this initial period of the movement, and his letters consistently affirm the nearness of the End. Writing in the late 40s C.E., Paul expected to be alive, along with his community in Thessalonika, for Jesus' return, the resurrection of the dead, and the gathering of the elect. He told the Philippians that "The Lord is near" and confided to the Corinthians that the time between "now" and the end had already been "shortened," stating that "the ends of the ages" had arrived and "now is the acceptable time," "now is the day of salvation!" Even in his final letter to the Romans, in the late 50s C.E., Paul confidently announced that "salvation is even nearer to us than when we first became convinced. The night is far gone. The day"—referring to the Last Day, Jesus' return, and the Kingdom's establishment—"is at hand."
Key Sources for Reconstructing the Early Jesus Movement: Reconstructing the beliefs and convictions of the earliest generation of Jesus' followers is challenging because history did not unfold as they expected. Fortunately, various sources aid this effort. The most direct voice from the period is the apostle Paul, through his seven undisputed letters. Beyond these, the New Testament includes the canonical gospels (Mark, Matthew, Luke – the "synoptic" gospels, which are related; and the distinct gospel of John) and the Acts of the Apostles (presented as "part 2" of Luke). Other crucial sources include the works of the Jewish historian Josephus (Jewish War and Antiquities of the Jews), the Dead Sea Scrolls (library of the Essene community), works by Jewish intellectual Philo of Alexandria, Jewish inscriptions from the Diaspora, and various Jewish revelations like Daniel and Jubilees. Josephus is highlighted as an indispensable source for understanding the context in Jerusalem.
Josephus as an Essential Historical Witness: Yosef ben Mattityahu, later known as Flavius Josephus, was born in Jerusalem into an aristocratic priestly family just years after Jesus' death. His father served in the Temple under the high priest Caiaphas, who was in office when Jesus was crucified. Josephus himself served in the Temple and was familiar with various Jewish "sects" or "schools" of late Second Temple Judaism, such as Sadducees, Pharisees, Essenes, and Zealots. He knew or knew of charismatic figures like John the Baptizer and Jesus of Nazareth, and was aware of the community formed around Jesus after his death. Josephus played a significant role in the Jewish War against Rome, surviving the conflict and the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 C.E. His writings, particularly the Jewish War and the Antiquities of the Jews, provide unparalleled access to this period from a postwar perspective, helping to understand the context of the conflict, the role of prophecy, and the relationships between the chief priests and Rome, and the impact of popular prophetic movements.
Jerusalem's History and Political Landscape: The city of Jerusalem had a long and complex history, built up by David and Solomon, destroyed by the Babylonians, and restored under Persian rule. Under the Persians, Judea was ruled from Jerusalem by the high priest, who coordinated with an imperial governor. This system persisted for centuries. After Alexander the Great, Jerusalem was caught between the feuding Ptolemies (Egypt) and Seleucids (Syria), experiencing Hellenization efforts, notably an aristocratic Jewish initiative under the high priest Jason. The Maccabean Revolt successfully fought against Seleucid attempts at forced Hellenization and temple desecration, leading to Jewish independence under the Hasmonean family. However, Hasmonean internal feuds led to Roman intervention, with Pompey conquering Jerusalem in 63 B.C.E., defiling the Temple sanctuary and diminishing the city. Real power eventually shifted to Herod the Great's family, who backed Rome's victors. During Jesus' lifetime and for the following four decades, Roman power politics and popular prophetic movements in Judea created a volatile environment, leading to numerous crucifixions along the path to the final siege.
Herod's Temple and Its Significance: Herod the Great, ruling from 37 to 4 B.C.E., built the Jerusalem that Jesus knew. He centralized power by controlling the high priesthood, turning it into a politically appointed position rather than a lifelong, hereditary one. Despite undermining the office, Herod vastly enhanced the Temple institution physically. He expanded the sacred precincts to a massive thirty-five acres, surrounded by a wall nearly a mile long, parts of which are still visible today (the Western Wall). The Temple complex featured nested courtyards: the innermost sanctuary, the court of the priests, the court for Jewish men, and the women's court. Surrounding these was the vast Court of the Nations, accessible to non-Jews. This outer court was the busiest area, where pilgrims and visitors could exchange currencies into the Tyrian shekels accepted by the Temple, with moneychangers' tables set up under the perimeter stoa. The Temple represented a core privilege of Israel and was considered the place on earth where God's presence (glory) dwelt, embodying the mandated system of "worship" (cultic sacrifices).
Divergent Gospel Accounts of Jesus' Itinerary: The canonical gospels present significantly different accounts of how often Jesus visited Jerusalem during his public mission. The Synoptic gospels (Mark, Matthew, and Luke), which are related to each other, generally depict Jesus' mission as centered primarily in the Galilee, with only one trip to Jerusalem at the very end of his life, culminating in the Passover week and his crucifixion. Mark, considered the earliest, explicitly frames the mission this way. In this narrative, the Temple incident with the moneychangers happens during this final week and directly leads to the priests' hostility and plot against Jesus. In contrast, John's gospel portrays Jesus as frequently in Jerusalem for various festivals throughout his mission. In John's account, the moneychanger incident occurs near the beginning of his gospel and does not trigger his execution plot later on.
Evaluating the Historical Plausibility of Gospel Narratives: Assessing the historical plausibility of the gospels' portrayals of Jesus involves considering both his character and his itinerary. Most New Testament scholars historically favor the Synoptics for reconstructing the historical Jesus' character, seeing him as a charismatic healer, holy man, and exorcist whose preaching focused on the coming Kingdom of God and emphasized the Ten Commandments ("piety and justice"). This fits within the context of other contemporary Jewish charismatic figures. John's Jesus, however, is a more mysterious, theological figure who preaches about himself rather than the Kingdom, seeming more at home in a later, Greek-speaking context. Regarding itinerary, reliance on the synoptic "one trip to Jerusalem" model creates a historical problem: it makes it difficult to explain why Jesus, active primarily in the Galilee (ruled by Herod Antipas, who did not act against him), was ultimately crucified by Roman authority in Judea. John's depiction of multiple trips to Jerusalem, where Roman authority (the prefect) was present during festivals due to large crowds, offers a more plausible context for Jesus encountering Roman concern about sedition. Furthermore, the early community's settlement in Jerusalem after Jesus' death also supports the idea of a prior Judean mission, as suggested by John and evidence from Paul's letters about early communities in Judea.
Contrasting Views on the Temple (Paul vs. Essenes): Attitudes towards the Jerusalem Temple among first-century Jews varied, but the text highlights a key contrast between the apostle Paul and the Essene community. Paul, writing before the Temple's destruction in 70 C.E., shows a consistently positive regard for the Temple. He refers to Jewish sacrifices positively, explaining how eating them creates a bond between God and priests, using this to illustrate the communion in the Eucharist. He also uses Temple imagery to describe his gentile communities, stating they are made "pure" and "holy" by God's spirit, resembling God's Temple itself, where the spirit dwells. He directly refers to the Temple and its cult as defining privileges of Israel. In stark contrast, the Essenes, particularly the group associated with the Dead Sea Scrolls, held a stridently negative attitude towards the Jerusalem Temple and its priesthood. This hostility stemmed from deep resentment over the Hasmoneans (non-Zadokite priests) usurping the high priesthood, which they viewed as divinely sanctioned for their Zadokite lineage. They saw the Hasmonean-led Temple as defiled and refused contact with it, adhering to a different calendar. While they rejected the current Temple, they were not anti-Temple in principle; their writings anticipate a new, pure temple run according to their specifications in the Messianic age.
Jesus' Relationship with the Temple, Purity, and the Cause of His Crucifixion: While the gospels present conflicting accounts, evidence suggests Jesus likely had a positive orientation towards the Temple and accepted Jewish purity practices. Examples include the synoptic Jesus instructing a healed leper to show himself to the priest and offer the commanded sacrifice (a ritual performed at the Temple) and Matthew's Jesus mentioning making a "gift before the altar," assuming his followers would make temple offerings. John's gospel, with its Jerusalem-centered narrative, implies Jesus would have engaged in purity rituals, necessary for entering sacred precincts. Participation in pilgrimage festivals like Passover required a weeklong purification process involving water and ashes. All gospels depict Jesus going to Jerusalem for his final Passover with crowds of pilgrims who underwent purification. The text argues that the traditional explanation for Jesus' crucifixion—priestly hostility stemming from the Temple incident—is less compelling than the Roman concern about sedition. Roman prefects only came to Jerusalem during crowded festivals and were primarily concerned with maintaining order and suppressing potential uprisings. Jesus was crucified by Rome as "King of the Jews," a title associated with messianic, potentially rebellious, claims. This manner of death, reserved for insurrectionists, and the "King of the Jews" titulus strongly suggest that the Romans, specifically Pilate, acted not due to Jesus' internal Jewish disputes or priestly pressure alone, but because the size and enthusiasm of the crowds around him in Jerusalem during Passover led them to perceive him as a potential threat to Roman authority, fearing sedition.