Source: Marvin A. Sweeney, Jewish Mysticism: From Ancient Times through Today (Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2020), 10–49.
VISIONARY EXPERIENCE IN THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST.wav
This podcast examines visionary and dream experiences of the divine in the ancient Near East, focusing on how different cultures conceptualized and interacted with their gods as a background for understanding similar themes in ancient Israel and Judah. It highlights how Egyptian gods were often depicted with tangible forms that served as metaphors for their intangible qualities and power, communicating through divine speech, particularly in well-crafted prophecy and dreams. Canaanite traditions, especially from Ugarit, portray gods acting in very human-like ways but influencing the world, with communication often occurring through dreams where deities offer instruction or insight. Mesopotamian cultures viewed their gods as luminous beings identified with aspects of creation and political structures, with communication often happening through omens interpreted by specialists called baru-priests or through dreams and visions that conveyed divine will and authority.
1. The Origins of Ancient Israel and its Canaanite Context: The sources suggest that ancient Israel emerged as a distinct entity in Canaan during the latter part of the Bronze Age, roughly between the fourteenth and tenth centuries BCE. Initial historical references, such as the victory stele of Pharaoh Merneptah (late thirteenth century BCE), describe Israel not as a settled nation or city, but as a semi-nomadic tribal group residing in Canaan. This contrasts with portrayals in some biblical sources that depict Israel as foreign conquerors entering Canaan. However, other biblical accounts and archaeological evidence indicate that Israel had strong cultural and linguistic ties to ancient Canaan. The very name "Israel" is presented not with the interpretation found in Genesis ("you have struggled with G-d and with humans"), but as a theophoric name meaning "G-d rules," incorporating the name of the Canaanite creator god, El, who is known from much older Ugaritic texts (fifteenth-fourteenth century BCE). The sources also explore potential earlier origins, pointing to the Amarna letters from the mid-fourteenth century BCE, which refer to semi-nomadic groups called the Habiru. Many scholars propose a link between the Akkadian term "habiru" ("barbarian" or semi-nomadic) and the Hebrew word "ivri" ("Hebrew"). The portrayal of the Habiru in the Amarna letters, particularly their concentration around Shechem and alliances with local rulers like King Labayu, aligns with later biblical accounts that highlight Shechem as a central political and religious site where Israelite tribes gathered to affirm covenants. The sources emphasize that Israel and Judah developed from Canaanite culture, borrowing concepts and practices from Canaanite religion, such as temple models and attributing characteristics of Canaanite deities like El and Baal to their own distinct deity, YHWH. The divine name YHWH itself is suggested to have originated among semi-nomadic tribal groups in Edom before becoming known as the god of Judah and Israel during the premonarchic and monarchic periods.
2. Conceptualizations of Gods: Embodied Form vs. Intangible Presence: A significant topic is how different Ancient Near Eastern cultures understood the nature of their deities, particularly the interplay between tangible, embodied forms and intangible character or presence. In Egyptian religion, gods are frequently depicted in various physical forms, often combining human and animal features, depending on their qualities. For example, Ptah can appear in human form, as half-human/half-hawk, or as two birds with human heads. However, the sources stress that these tangible portrayals should be understood as metaphorical devices. The true significance of deities like Ptah or Amun-Re lies in their underlying, intangible character and powers, such as Ptah infusing creation with his presence or Amun-Re's unseen power as the sun bringing life and order. Egyptian theology, such as the Memphite Theology of Creation, describes creation originating from the god's intangible mind (heart) and spoken word (tongue) before taking tangible form. The abstraction of light and the sun are also used as metaphors for the intangible character of sun deities. In contrast, Canaanite texts, particularly from Ugarit, provide fewer details about the physical characteristics of their gods. While deities like El are sometimes portrayed symbolically (e.g., as a bull or wearing a horned crown), their interaction and activities often reflect very human interests (combat, banqueting, sex). Mesopotamian gods are likewise depicted with human and animal imagery, but they are often described as luminous beings whose intangible forms differentiate them from humans. Art, such as the Adda cylinder seal, portrays deities with physical features linked to natural phenomena (sun rays, pouring water), but these are also presented as metaphors for their divine presence. Across these cultures, while gods can take physical forms or be represented tangibly (like idols or statues), there is an underlying understanding that their true power and essence may be intangible, abstract principles made comprehensible through metaphor and tangible representation. Israel and Judah, while possibly influenced by ideas of divine embodiment, generally avoided detailed tangible portrayals of YHWH, preferring metaphorical imagery like smoke, cloud, fire, or water, and actively discouraging the construction of idols.
3. Divine-Human Interaction through Visions, Dreams, and Omens: The sources extensively detail the various ways humans in the Ancient Near East sought to experience and interact with their gods, with visions, dreams, and omens being primary channels. In Egyptian culture, divine interaction is often depicted through dreams, particularly for pharaohs. Thutmose IV and Djoser report dreams where deities (Hor-em-akhet/Kephri Re Atum and Khnum, respectively) appear, but the emphasis is not on their physical appearance but on the verbal message conveyed. The Bentresh Stele also reports a dream where a god appears as a falcon but communicates verbally. The Journey of Wen Amun highlights a young man entering an ecstatic trance and speaking on behalf of an unnamed Phoenician god, again emphasizing the verbal message transmitted through a human vessel. Egyptian prophecy, as seen in texts like the Prophecy of Neferti and the Admonitions of Ipuwer, is also discussed as representing divine speech, often in a highly literary and poetic form. In Canaanite traditions, dreams are a common means of divine communication. In the Ugaritic Aqhat text, Baal appears to Dan-el in a dream to intercede on his behalf, and El grants the request based on the divine message. In the Keret legend, El appears to King Keret in a dream vision, speaking instructions and offering assistance. The Deir Alla Inscription from the Transjordanian region describes the seer Balaam bar Beor reporting a dream vision of a divine council conveying a pronouncement from El and the goddess Shagar-and-Ishtar. Mesopotamian culture placed great importance on interpreting divine will through a variety of omens. Baru-priests were specialists trained to read signs in the natural world (stars, planets, animal movements, anomalies), smoke, oil on water, animal entrails (especially livers), and dreams. Dreams were considered communication from the gods, and interpreting their symbolism was a key skill for baru-priests. The Atrahasis Epic describes the god Enki speaking to the flood hero Atrahasis through a reed wall, suggesting a form of oracular communication, or interpreting messages transcribed on papyrus by a baru-priest. Gilgamesh also experiences dreams sent by the gods that signal divine approval or warning, which require preparation through offerings and invoking natural features. Overall, across these cultures, interaction with the divine realm frequently occurred through indirect means like dreams, visions, and the interpretation of signs or omens, often focusing more on the divine message or instruction than on a detailed physical manifestation of the deity.
4. Mythology and its Functions: The sources explore how mythology served as a primary means for Ancient Near Eastern cultures to explain the world, define the roles of gods and humans, and legitimize social and political structures. Creation myths, such as the Egyptian accounts of Ptah's creation through thought and word or Amun-Re as a self-created hidden principle, and the Mesopotamian Enuma Elish where Marduk defeats Tiamatu to establish cosmic and political order, illustrate how these cultures understood the origins of the universe and the relationship between the divine and the natural world. Combat myths, like Baal's defeat of Yamm in the Ugaritic cycle or Marduk's battle with Tiamatu, often portray the hero deity establishing order by overcoming chaos, which can also symbolize the political ascendancy of the deity's city or nation. Dying and rising god myths, exemplified by the Baal cycle and the Descent of Inanna/Ishtar, are used to explain natural phenomena like the seasonal cycles of drought and rain, linking divine fate to agricultural fertility. Myths about human creation, such as the Atrahasis Epic where humans are made from clay mixed with the blood of a slain god to relieve the burden of the lesser gods, explain the purpose and origin of human beings. Narratives like the Adapa myth explain human mortality as a result of a human choice or misunderstanding. Royal ideology is often embedded in mythology; the Egyptian Dream Stele of Thutmose IV and the Sumerian King List's concept of kingship being "lowered from heaven" link divine will to the legitimacy of rulers. The Babylonian Akitu festival and the Sumerian sacred marriage rites, involving the king and a priestess embodying divine figures like Marduk/Inanna and Dumuzi, were rituals derived from mythology that ritually renewed kingship and creation annually. Myths provided a framework for understanding everything from cosmic order and natural cycles to human fate, royal authority, and religious rituals.
5. Characterization of Ancient Near Eastern Gods: The sources depict Ancient Near Eastern deities as complex beings who, while possessing immense power, are often portrayed with very human-like characteristics and flaws. Egyptian gods like Ptah or Amun-Re are powerful creators, but their forms shift, and theological texts suggest an underlying intangible nature. Canaanite gods, particularly in Ugaritic texts, engage in combat, banqueting, sex, and excess drinking, demonstrating human-like interests and weaknesses. El, the chief god, can be influenced by threats from his daughter Anath, and requires nursing after excessive drinking. Baal, a powerful storm god, is mortal to the extent that he can be killed by Mot and must be rescued from the underworld. Mesopotamian gods are likewise powerful, capable of creating humans or bringing about destruction (flood, famine), but they also experience hunger when humans fail to make offerings (Atrahasis Epic) and can be prone to anger or offense (Ishtar's reaction to Gilgamesh). Some myths portray divine councils making decisions, mirroring human political assemblies. While powerful and capable of controlling aspects of creation, the sources highlight that these deities are often depicted as undependable, self-interested, and even amoral from a human perspective. This human-like portrayal and their potential undependability required humans to constantly seek to understand their will through various divinatory practices and rituals to navigate their relationship with the divine realm and ensure survival and flourishing.
6. Key Religious Characteristics and Myths of Ancient Egypt: The sources provide detailed information on Egyptian religion, highlighting its variety of gods and goddesses, their often combined human and animal forms, and their conceptualization. Egyptian deities are tied to specific regions or cities, with the dominant deity changing with political power shifts (Ptah in Memphis, Amun-Re in Thebes). While depicted tangibly, the sources emphasize the metaphorical nature of these forms, with the true divine essence being intangible (e.g., Amun-Re as a hidden principle or Aten as the intangible essence). Key myths discussed include the Memphite Theology of Creation, emphasizing creation through thought and word, and later tangible formation; the myths of Osiris, Isis, Seth, and Horus, which explain kingship, resurrection, and natural phenomena like the Nile's flood and color through divine conflicts and actions (Seth killing Osiris, Seth and Horus fighting as hippos in the Nile, Isis resurrecting Osiris and aiding Horus); and narratives involving sun deities like Amun-Re and Aten, lauded for their intangible power in bringing life and order through sunlight. Egyptian interaction with the divine heavily features dreams and prophetic speech, often conveying verbal messages from deities rather than detailed visual appearances. Texts like the Dream Stele of Thutmose IV and Djoser, the Bentresh Stele, the Journey of Wen Amun, and the Prophecy of Neferti exemplify this focus on divine communication through speech or mediated visions, often within a political or ritual context. The Admonitions of Ipuwer, while potentially presenting divine critique through human speech (Pharaoh's role), also highlights the expectation of divine guidance through authoritative speech. These examples collectively illustrate the complex and multifaceted nature of Egyptian religious thought, emphasizing the interplay between tangible divine representations and intangible divine presence, mediated through various forms of communication, particularly speech in dreams and prophecy, to maintain cosmic and political order.